托福阅读真题解析.docx
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托福阅读真题解析
2013年11月9日托福阅读真题解析
第一篇:
主题:
动物的行为来自本能,还是后天学习
为解答此问题,文中给出两种理论:
1、认为动物的行为来自于基因。
例子:
beggingcall(乞食的叫声),雏鸟出生就会。
2、行为是后天习得的。
专家用实验做了证明。
实验的实例:
雏鸟会叫,是因为在卵中听过成年鸟的叫声。
结论:
动物的行为来自先天与后天条件的共同影响。
解析:
文章结构非常清晰,是典型的“现象——问题——假说解答——证据——结论”发展流程。
“本能与学习”也并非新鲜话题,TPO,OG和其他真题当中早有涉及,各位考生可以参考
FeedingHabitsofEastAfricanHerbivores,OrientationandNavigation等文章。
另外请注意,文章发展流程中“证据”一节,在生物学话题中,往往以实验的形式出现;“结论”一节不一定提出准确、单一的结论,而可能由于证据不足而并无明确结论。
下面是关于“本能”的参考资料
Instinct or innatebehavior istheinherentinclinationofaliving organism towardaparticularcomplex behavior.
Thesimplestexampleofaninstinctivebehaviorisa fixedactionpattern,inwhichaveryshorttomediumlengthsequenceofactions,withoutvariation,arecarriedoutinresponsetoaclearlydefinedstimulus.
Anybehaviorisinstinctiveifitisperformedwithoutbeingbaseduponpriorexperience(thatis,intheabsenceoflearning),andisthereforeanexpressionofinnatebiologicalfactors. Seaturtles,newlyhatchedonabeach,willautomaticallymovetowardtheocean.A joey climbsintoitsmother'spouchuponbeingborn.[1] Honeybees communicatebydancinginthedirectionofafoodsourcewithoutformalinstruction.Otherexamplesincludeanimalfighting,animalcourtship behavior,internalescapefunctions,andthebuildingof nests.Alloftheseareexamplesof complex behaviorsandarethussubstantiallydifferentfrom simple reflexbehaviors.
Aninstinctshouldbedistinguishedfroma reflex, whichisasimpleresponseofanorganismtoaspecificstimulus,suchasthecontractionofthepupilinresponsetobrightlightorthespasmodicmovementofthelowerlegwhenthekneeistapped.Instincts,incontrast,areinborncomplexpatternsofbehaviorthatmustexistineverymemberofthespeciesandthatcannotbeovercomebyforceofwill.[2] However,theabsenceofvolitionalcapacitymustnotbeconfusedwithaninabilitytomodifyfixedactionpatterns.Forexample,peoplemaybeabletomodifyastimulatedfixedactionpatternbyconsciouslyrecognizingthepointofitsactivationandsimplystopdoingit,whereasanimalswithoutasufficientlystrongvolitionalcapacitymaynotbeabletodisengagefromtheirfixedactionpatterns,onceactivated.[3]
Theroleofinstinctsindeterminingthebehaviorofanimalsvariesfromspeciestospecies.Themorecomplextheneuralsystemofananimal,thegreateristheroleofthecerebralcortex,andsociallearningandinstinctsplayalesserrole.Acomparisonbetweenacrocodileandanelephantillustrateshowmammalsforexampleareheavilydependentonsociallearning.Lionessesandchimpanzeesraisedinzoosawayfromtheirbirthmothersmostoftenrejecttheirownoffspringbecausetheyhavenotbeentaughttheskillsofmothering.Suchisnotthecasewithsimplerspeciessuchasreptiles
第二篇:
主题:
雨林里的叫声
第一、二段举若干雨林中动物发声的例子,青蛙发声的方式是其中一例。
中间若干段讨论雨林中动物在什么时间发声——结论是黎明和黄昏最吵,而正午最静。
原因可能是夜间声音传播效果好。
科学家在雨林中收集声音样本,发现听起来杂乱无章的声音,实际上各频率之间分隔很清楚。
不同物种占据不同的声音频率。
解析:
与第一篇相比,结构略显松散。
从若干发生动物的例子,到关于发声时间的讨论,再到不同物种发声频率的分布,并无逻辑上的必然联系。
但是,讨论的深入程度,还是随段落的发展在逐渐提升——即由具体(青蛙等例子)到抽象(声音的频率),由定性(青蛙等例子)到定量(声音的时间分布)到更精确定量(频率分布)。
下面是关于“雨林”的参考资料
Tropicalrainforestsarecharacterizedintwowords:
warmandwet.Meanmonthlytemperaturesexceed18°C(64°F)duringallmonthsoftheyear.[5]Averageannualrainfallisnolessthan168cm(66in)andcanexceed1,000cm(390in)althoughittypicallyliesbetween175cm(69in)and200cm(79in).[6]
Manyoftheworld'srainforestsareassociatedwiththelocationofthemonsoontrough,alsoknownastheintertropicalconvergencezone.[7]Tropicalrainforestsarerainforestsinthetropics,foundintheequatorialzone(betweentheTropicofCancerandTropicofCapricorn).TropicalrainforestispresentinSoutheastAsia(fromMyanmar(Burma)tothePhilippines,Malaysia,Indonesia,PapuaNewGuineaandnortheasternAustralia),SriLanka,sub-SaharanAfricafromCameroontotheCongo(CongoRainforest),SouthAmerica(e.g.theAmazonRainforest),CentralAmerica(e.g.Bosawás,southernYucatánPeninsula-ElPeten-Belize-Calakmul),andonmanyofthePacificIslands(suchasHawaiʻi).Tropicalrainforestshavebeencalledthe"Earth'slungs",althoughitisnowknownthatrainforestscontributelittlenetoxygenadditiontotheatmospherethroughphotosynthesis.[8][9]
Tropicalrainforestsarecharacterizedintwowords:
warmandwet.Meanmonthlytemperaturesexceed18°C(64°F)duringallmonthsoftheyear.[5]Averageannualrainfallisnolessthan168cm(66in)andcanexceed1,000cm(390in)althoughittypicallyliesbetween175cm(69in)and200cm(79in).[6]
Manyoftheworld'srainforestsareassociatedwiththelocationofthemonsoontrough,alsoknownastheintertropicalconvergencezone.[7]Tropicalrainforestsarerainforestsinthetropics,foundintheequatorialzone(betweentheTropicofCancerandTropicofCapricorn).TropicalrainforestispresentinSoutheastAsia(fromMyanmar(Burma)tothePhilippines,Malaysia,Indonesia,PapuaNewGuineaandnortheasternAustralia),SriLanka,sub-SaharanAfricafromCameroontotheCongo(CongoRainforest),SouthAmerica(e.g.theAmazonRainforest),CentralAmerica(e.g.Bosawás,southernYucatánPeninsula-ElPeten-Belize-Calakmul),andonmanyofthePacificIslands(suchasHawaiʻi).Tropicalrainforestshavebeencalledthe"Earth'slungs",althoughitisnowknownthatrainforestscontributelittlenetoxygenadditiontotheatmospherethroughphotosynthesis.[8][9]
Tropicalforestscoveralargepartoftheglobe,buttemperaterainforestsonlyoccurinfewregionsaroundtheworld.Temperaterainforestsarerainforestsintemperateregions.TheyoccurinNorthAmerica(inthePacificNorthwest,theBritishColumbiaCoastandintheinlandrainforestoftheRockyMountainTrencheastofPrinceGeorge),inEurope(partsoftheBritishIslessuchasthecoastalareasofIrelandandScotland,southernNorway,partsofthewesternBalkansalongtheAdriaticcoast,aswellasinGaliciaandcoastalareasoftheeasternBlackSea,includingGeorgiaandcoastalTurkey),inEastAsia(insouthernChina,Taiwan,muchofJapanandKorea,andonSakhalinIslandandtheadjacentRussianFarEastcoast),inSouthAmerica(southernChile)andalsoinAustraliaandNewZealand.[10]
第三篇:
主题:
大陆漂移假说的起源
早期:
美洲大陆和非洲大陆的形状可以拼接,使人怀疑大陆是否曾经相互连接。
有人认为月球引力是大陆漂移的原因,但此说很可疑。
中期:
学者AW氏正式提出大陆漂移假说。
他提出支持假说的根据有美洲、非洲相似的岩层和冰川遗迹。
后期:
很多学者支持AW氏提出的假说,并纷纷发现新的证据,使此说越来越可信。
根据大陆漂移假说,合理的进一步推论:
远古时代,大陆一度挤成一团,并无欧亚非之分。
解析:
所谓学者AW氏,无疑就是AlfredLotharWegener,德国地质学家魏格纳。
文章题材,也并不新鲜,就是围绕特定现象,讲述学说更新的历史。
此类典型文章可参见theOriginofthePacificIslandPeople,theOriginsofAgriculture。
学说更新的历史,其结论往往容易预测——新的学说得到越来越多支持性证据,而老的学生被反证否定,最终大多数人接受了新学说。
以下是关于魏格纳其人的若干资料。
AlfredLotharWegener(November1,1880–November1930)wasaGermanpolarresearcher,geophysicistandmeteorologist.
Duringhislifetimehewasprimarilyknownforhisachievementsinmeteorologyandasapioneerofpolarresearch,buttodayheismostrememberedforadvancingthetheoryofcontinentaldrift(Kontinentalverschiebung)in1912,whichhypothesizedthatthecontinentswereslowlydriftingaroundtheEarth.Hishypothesiswascontroversialandnotwidelyaccepteduntilthe1950s,whennumerousdiscoveriessuchaspalaeomagnetismprovidedstrongsupportforcontinentaldrift,andtherebyasubstantialbasisfortoday'smodelofPlatetectonics.[1][2]WegenerwasinvolvedinseveralexpeditionstoGreenlandtostudypolaraircirculationbeforetheexistenceofthejetstreamwasaccepted.Expeditionparticipantsmademanymeteorologicalobservationsandachievedthefirst-everoverwinteringontheinlandGreenlandicesheetaswellasthefirst-everboringoficecoresonamovingArcticglacier.
FirstGreenlandexpeditionandyearsinMarburg
Inthatsameyear1906,WegenerparticipatedinthefirstofhisfourGreenlandexpeditions,laterregardingthisexperienceasmarkingadecisiveturningpointinhislife.TheexpeditionwasledbytheDaneLudvigMylius-ErichsenandchargedwithstudyingthelastunknownportionofthenortheasterncoastofGreenland.DuringtheexpeditionWegenerconstructedthefirstmeteorologicalstationinGreenlandnearDanmarkshavn,wherehelaunchedkitesandtetheredballoonstomakemeteorologicalmeasurementsinanArcticclimaticzone.HereWegeneralsomadehisfirstacquaintancewithdeathinawildernessoficewhentheexpeditionleaderandtwoofhiscolleaguesdiedonanexploratorytripundertakenwithsleddogs.
Afterhisreturnin1908anduntilWorldWarI,Wegenerwasalecturerinmeteorology,appliedastronomyandcosmicphysicsattheUniversityofMarburg.HisstudentsandcolleaguesinMarburgparticularlyvaluedhisabilitytoclearlyandunderstandablyexplainevencomplextopicsandcurrentresearchfindingswithoutsacrificingprecision.Hislecturesformedthebasisofwhatwastobecomeastandardtextbookinmeteorology,firstwrittenIn1909/1910:
ThermodynamikderAtmosphäre(ThermodynamicsoftheAtmosphere),inwhichheincorporatedmanyoftheresultsoftheGreenlandexpedition.
On6January1912hepublicizedhisfirstthoughtsaboutcontinentaldriftinalectureatasessionoftheGeologischenVereinigungattheSenckenberg-Museum,FrankfurtamMainandinthreearticlesinthejournalPetermannsGeographischenMitteilungen.[5]
SecondGreenlandexpedition
AfterastopoverinIcelandtopurchaseandtestponysaspackanimals,theexpeditionarrivedinDanmarkshavn.Evenbeforethetriptotheinlandicebegantheexpeditionwasalmostannihilatedbyacalvingglacier.TheDanishexpeditionleader,JohanPeterKoch,brokehislegwhenhefellintoaglaciercrevasseandspentmonthsrecoveringinasickbed.WegenerandKochwerethefirsttowinterontheinlandiceinnortheastGreenland.[6]Insi