What is English.docx
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WhatisEnglish
WhatisEnglish?
HistoryoftheEnglishLanguage
AshorthistoryoftheoriginsanddevelopmentofEnglish
ThehistoryoftheEnglishlanguagereallystartedwiththearrivalofthreeGermanictribeswhoinvadedBritainduringthe5thcenturyAD.Thesetribes,theAngles,theSaxonsandtheJutes,crossedtheNorthSeafromwhattodayisDenmarkandnorthernGermany.AtthattimetheinhabitantsofBritainspokeaCelticlanguage.ButmostoftheCelticspeakerswerepushedwestandnorthbytheinvaders-mainlyintowhatisnowWales,ScotlandandIreland.TheAnglescamefromEnglalandandtheirlanguagewascalledEnglisc-fromwhichthewordsEnglandandEnglisharederived.
GermanicinvadersenteredBritainontheeastandsouthcoastsinthe5thcentury.
OldEnglish(450-1100AD)
PartofBeowulf,apoemwritteninOldEnglish.
TheinvadingGermanictribesspokesimilarlanguages,whichinBritaindevelopedintowhatwenowcallOldEnglish.OldEnglishdidnotsoundorlooklikeEnglishtoday.NativeEnglishspeakersnowwouldhavegreatdifficultyunderstandingOldEnglish.Nevertheless,abouthalfofthemostcommonlyusedwordsinModernEnglishhaveOldEnglishroots.Thewordsbe,strongandwater,forexample,derivefromOldEnglish.OldEnglishwasspokenuntilaround1100.
MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)
AnexampleofMiddleEnglishbyChaucer.
In1066WilliamtheConqueror,theDukeofNormandy(partofmodernFrance),invadedandconqueredEngland.Thenewconquerors(calledtheNormans)broughtwiththemakindofFrench,whichbecamethelanguageoftheRoyalCourt,andtherulingandbusinessclasses.Foraperiodtherewasakindoflinguisticclassdivision,wherethelowerclassesspokeEnglishandtheupperclassesspokeFrench.Inthe14thcenturyEnglishbecamedominantinBritainagain,butwithmanyFrenchwordsadded.ThislanguageiscalledMiddleEnglish.ItwasthelanguageofthegreatpoetChaucer(c1340-1400),butitwouldstillbedifficultfornativeEnglishspeakerstounderstandtoday.
ModernEnglish
EarlyModernEnglish(1500-1800)
Hamlet'sfamous"Tobe,ornottobe"lines,writteninEarlyModernEnglishbyShakespeare.
TowardstheendofMiddleEnglish,asuddenanddistinctchangeinpronunciation(theGreatVowelShift)started,withvowelsbeingpronouncedshorterandshorter.Fromthe16thcenturytheBritishhadcontactwithmanypeoplesfromaroundtheworld.This,andtheRenaissanceofClassicallearning,meantthatmanynewwordsandphrasesenteredthelanguage.Theinventionofprintingalsomeantthattherewasnowacommonlanguageinprint.Booksbecamecheaperandmorepeoplelearnedtoread.PrintingalsobroughtstandardizationtoEnglish.Spellingandgrammarbecamefixed,andthedialectofLondon,wheremostpublishinghouseswere,becamethestandard.In1604thefirstEnglishdictionarywaspublished.
LateModernEnglish(1800-Present)
ThemaindifferencebetweenEarlyModernEnglishandLateModernEnglishisvocabulary.LateModernEnglishhasmanymorewords,arisingfromtwoprincipalfactors:
firstly,theIndustrialRevolutionandtechnologycreatedaneedfornewwords;secondly,theBritishEmpireatitsheightcoveredonequarteroftheearth'ssurface,andtheEnglishlanguageadoptedforeignwordsfrommanycountries.
VarietiesofEnglish
Fromaround1600,theEnglishcolonizationofNorthAmericaresultedinthecreationofadistinctAmericanvarietyofEnglish.SomeEnglishpronunciationsandwords"froze"whentheyreachedAmerica.Insomeways,AmericanEnglishismoreliketheEnglishofShakespearethanmodernBritishEnglishis.SomeexpressionsthattheBritishcall"Americanisms"areinfactoriginalBritishexpressionsthatwerepreservedinthecolonieswhilelostforatimeinBritain(forexampletrashforrubbish,loanasaverbinsteadoflend,andfallforautumn;anotherexample,frame-up,wasre-importedintoBritainthroughHollywoodgangstermovies).SpanishalsohadaninfluenceonAmericanEnglish(andsubsequentlyBritishEnglish),withwordslikecanyon,ranch,stampedeandvigilantebeingexamplesofSpanishwordsthatenteredEnglishthroughthesettlementoftheAmericanWest.Frenchwords(throughLouisiana)andWestAfricanwords(throughtheslavetrade)alsoinfluencedAmericanEnglish(andso,toanextent,BritishEnglish).
Today,AmericanEnglishisparticularlyinfluential,duetotheUSA'sdominanceofcinema,television,popularmusic,tradeandtechnology(includingtheInternet).ButtherearemanyothervarietiesofEnglisharoundtheworld,includingforexampleAustralianEnglish,NewZealandEnglish,CanadianEnglish,SouthAfricanEnglish,IndianEnglishandCaribbeanEnglish.
TheGermanicFamilyofLanguages
EnglishisamemberoftheGermanicfamilyoflanguages.
GermanicisabranchoftheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.
AbriefchronologyofEnglish
BC55
RomaninvasionofBritainbyJuliusCaesar.
LocalinhabitantsspeakCeltish
BC43
Romaninvasionandoccupation.BeginningofRomanruleofBritain.
436
RomanwithdrawalfromBritaincomplete.
449
SettlementofBritainbyGermanicinvadersbegins
450-480
EarliestknownOldEnglishinscriptions.
OldEnglish
1066
WilliamtheConqueror,DukeofNormandy,invadesandconquersEngland.
c1150
EarliestsurvivingmanuscriptsinMiddleEnglish.
MiddleEnglish
1348
EnglishreplacesLatinasthelanguageofinstructioninmostschools.
1362
EnglishreplacesFrenchasthelanguageoflaw.EnglishisusedinParliamentforthefirsttime.
c1388
ChaucerstartswritingTheCanterburyTales.
c1400
TheGreatVowelShiftbegins.
1476
WilliamCaxtonestablishesthefirstEnglishprintingpress.
EarlyModernEnglish
1564
Shakespeareisborn.
1604
TableAlphabeticall,thefirstEnglishdictionary,ispublished.
1607
ThefirstpermanentEnglishsettlementintheNewWorld(Jamestown)isestablished.
1616
Shakespearedies.
1623
Shakespeare'sFirstFolioispublished
1702
ThefirstdailyEnglish-languagenewspaper,TheDailyCourant,ispublishedinLondon.
1755
SamuelJohnsonpublisheshisEnglishdictionary.
1776
ThomasJeffersonwritestheAmericanDeclarationofIndependence.
1782
BritainabandonsitsAmericancolonies.
1828
WebsterpublisheshisAmericanEnglishdictionary.
LateModernEnglish
1922
TheBritishBroadcastingCorporationisfounded.
1928
TheOxfordEnglishDictionaryispublished.
CharlesI
WhenCharlesIsucceededhisfatherin1625,frictionwithParliamentbeganatonce.CharlesbelievedinhisdivinerightaskingandstruggledtocontrolParliamentwhoresentedhisattemptsatabsoluterule.Oneofhisfirstactswastodissolveparliamentin1625,andagainin1626afterattemptstoimpeachtheDukeofBuckinghamoverwaragainstSpainandsupportoftheFrenchHuguenots.Charlesforcedanunpopular‘ShipMoney’taxtoraisefundswithouttheconsentofParliament.In1628CharleswaspresentedwiththePetitionofRightadeclarationofthe“rightsandlibertiesofthesubject",whichhereluctantlyagreedto.However,in1629hedissolvedParliamentagain,imprisoneditsleadersandruledwithoutaParliamentfrom1629to1640.HisadvisersEarlStraffordandArchbishopLaudpersecutedthePuritans,andprovokedthePresbyterianScotsCovenanterstorevoltwhenLaudattemptedtointroducetheEnglishBookofCommonPrayer.
TheShortParliament,whichmetApril1640,refusedtograntmoneyuntilgrievanceswereredressed,andwasdissolvedafterjust3weeks.TheScotsthenadvancedintoEnglandandforcedtheirowntermsonCharles.TheLongParliamentassembledunderinNovember1640underJohnPym,passedanActthatpreventeditfrombeingdissolvedwithoutitsownconsent.Laudandotherministerswereimprisoned,andStraffordcondemnedtodeath.TherewasnowdirectconfrontationbetweenCharlesandParliament.Afterthefailureofhisattempttoarrestfiveparliamentaryleaderson4January1642,Charles,confidentthathehadsubstantialsupportamongthosewhobelievedthatParliamentwasbecomingtooPuritanicalandzealous,withdrewfromLondon,andon22AugustdeclaredwaronParliamentbyraisinghisstandardatNottinghamandbeginningtheEnglishCivilWarof1642to1648.
ThechangingfaceoftheUnitedKingdom.
TheUnitedKingdom isaunionoffourterritoriesornations:
England,NorthernIreland,ScotlandandWales.ItisaconstitutionalmonarchywithQueenElizabethIIastheHeadofState.
Devolutiontimeline
MiddleAges:
In1404,WalesbrieflyhaditsownparliamentunderOwainGlyndwr. The LawsinWalesActs,passedbetween1535and1542,madeWalespartofEngland.
1603:
TheEnglishandScottishcrownsunitedwiththeaccessionofJamesVIofScotlandtotheEnglishthrone,asJamesI.
1707:
TheTreaty(orAct) ofUnionunitedtheparliamentsofEnglandandScotlandtoformasingleparliamentmeetinginWestminster.Thetwonationsformed'TheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritain'.
1800:
TheIrishParliamentvotedtojointhe UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainintheActofUnion (Ireland)-creating'TheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainand Ireland'.
1886:
AseriesofBillstogiveHomeRuletoIrelandwereintroducedatWestminster.
1920:
ThefourthHomeRuleActwaspassed,effectively creatingtwostatesontheislandofIreland.Northern Ireland wasestablishedinsixoftheninecountiesoftheprovinceofUlsterandbecameanentitywithintheUK.
1921:
NorthernIreland'sownparliamentcameintobeing.
1922:
TheIrishFreeState(latertheRepublicofIreland)wasestablished.NorthernIrelandchosetoremainintheUnitedKingdom.
1925:
PlaidGenedlaetholCymru,theNationalPartyofWales,wasformedwiththegoalofsecuring,amongstotherthings,