语言学17.docx

1、语言学171.1 Introduction to Linguistics What is Linguistics ?Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. It is a major branch of social science. Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human societies-language in general. Linguistics studies

2、 the general principles upon which all languages are constructed and operate as a system of communication in the societies in which they are used.Linguistics is guided by several acknowledged principles: empiricism (Linguistics is empirical rather than speculative or intuitive.) objectivity systemat

3、icity exhaustiveness consistency economyScope of Linguistics1. General Linguistics (in theory):2. Macro linguistics ( Application of Linguistics)3. Other classifications of linguistics1. General Linguistics (in theory):1 Phonetics (语音学)2 Phonology (音系学)3 Morphology (形态学/词形学)4 Syntax (句法学)5 Semantics

4、 (语义学) 6 Pragmatics (语用学) 2. Macro linguistics ( Application of Linguistics)1 Sociolinguistics （社会语言学）2 Psycholinguistics （心理语言学）3 Corpus linguistics （语料库语言学）4 Computational linguistics （计算语言学)5 Stylistic linguistics （stylistics) (文体学/语体学）6 Applied linguistics (应用语言学）7 3. Other Classifications of Li

5、nguistics (linguistic schools)1 Functional linguistics (功能语言学）2 Structural linguistics （结构语言学）3 Chomskyan linguistics （乔姆斯基语言学）4 Hallidayan linguistics（韩礼德语言学）5 History of Linguistics 5th century BC, Ancient Greeks began to study language Ancient (Plato), word origin & word class of Greek 15th centu

6、ry, universal grammar (Europe encountered other languages which forced scholars to look for a universal grammar.) 18th century, the similarities of some languages (1786, Sir William Jones , the historical kinship of Sanskrit with Lain, Greek and the Germanic languages.) 19th century, historical comp

7、arison of different languages early 20th century, modern linguistics (1916, F. de Saussure, Course in General linguistics)The historical development of linguistics -Philology (语文学） ( 5th cen BC18th cen) -Historical (comparative) linguistics (early 19th cen) -Modern （synchronic） linguistics (1916-) (

8、Course in General Linguistics, Ferdinand de. Saussure)F. de Saussure (1857-1913) 索绪尔Biography 1857年生于瑞士日内瓦的一个学者家庭。 1875年进入日内瓦大学，主修化学和物理。 1876年转入德国莱比锡大学文学系，主攻历史语言学。 1878年发表论印欧语元音的原始系统，轰动语言界。 1878年赴柏林大学学习18个月。 1880年获莱比锡大学博士学位，论文梵语绝对属格的用法 1880年秋开始任教巴黎高等学院，长达10年。成立法兰西学派。 1891年就任日内瓦大学文学社会科学系教授。 1907-1911

9、年连续三次讲授普通语言学课程。 1913年病逝于日内瓦。 惊人的语言天赋： 幼年就学会了法语、德语、英语、拉丁语和希腊语。 不到15岁就写了论诸语言一文。 认真的教学态度： 曾开设日耳曼比较语法，拉丁语希腊语比较语法，立陶宛语， 印欧语言比较， 希腊与拉丁语音学，古代希腊碑文选读，波斯诸王碑文，欧洲地理语言学， 日耳曼历史语言学，古英语，古高地德语， 三次讲授普通语言学。连续21年讲授梵文。 严谨的治学精神： 平生只发表过一篇论文。 “我通常感到在语言问题上，要写上十行言之成理的文字也有困难。”（许国璋 1983：5）J. Culler (an important figure of the

10、structuralism movement of literary theory and criticism.) says: “Ferdinand de Saussure is the father of modern linguistics, the man who reorganized the systematic study of language and languages in such a way as to make possible the achievements of the 20th century linguistics.”N. Chomsky (1928-)乔姆斯

11、基Chomsky is both a linguist and a social reformer. He is considered to be the worlds most influential living thinker. He is the most-quoted writer in history following Marx, Lenin, Shakeskpeare, the Bible (treated as an author), Aristotle, Plato and Freud. The result of the global public intellectua

12、ls pool, held by Prospect and Foreign Policy in 2005, shows that Chomsky is the first most influential public intellectual in the world. This is partly due to his research on social affairs and his independent views on American domestic and foreign policies. M.A.K. HallidayM.A.K. Halliday Halliday w

13、as born and raised in England. He took a BA Honours degree in Modern Chinese Language and Literature (Mandarin) at the University of London. He then lived for three years in China, where he studied under Luo Changpei at Peking and under Wang Li at Lingnan University, before returning to take a PhD i

14、n Chinese Linguistics at Cambridge. Having taught Chinese for a number of years, he changed his field of specialisation to linguistics, and developed systemic functional grammar, elaborating on the foundations laid by his British teacher J. R. Firth and a group of European linguists of the early 20t

15、h century, the Prague School. 1.2 What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.system-elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.arbitrary-there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a sign and its mea

16、ning.vocal-the primary medium for all languages is sound,no matter how well developed their writing systems are.symbols-words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.human-specific-human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity. Only human have lang

17、uage. “Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)1.3 Properties of language 语言的结构特征 (Design features)1) Arbitrariness（任意性）2) Duality（双重性）3) Productivity （创造性）4) Cultural transmission （文化传递性）1. Arbitrariness-the form of linguistic signs(eg. words, phases) bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The lin

18、k between them is a matter of convention. E.g. “house”, uchi (Japanese), mansion (French), 房子(Chinese) “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” -ShakespeareConventionality-In any language, there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are cust

19、omarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.Iconicity: (There is a natural connection between form and meaning.) -onomatopoeic words: rumble, crash, crackle, bang, 叮咚，轰隆，咔嚓 -compound words: typewriter, washing machine -phrases(proximity

20、 iconicity) the famous delicious Italian pepperoni pizza the old black wooden desk -sentences (sequencing iconicity) He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after he came in. Icons（图形） are physically similar to the objects represented. Eg. road traffic sign. Indexical（指示）：there

21、 is a causal relation between sign and referent. Eg. Smoke is indexical of fire. Symbolic (象征): serving as a symbol of something. Eg. the word in language, the formula in mathematics are symbols. These symbols are arbitrary as well as conventional.2. Duality-language is a system which consists of tw

22、o sets of structures, or two levels, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Higher level-units which are meaningful Lower level-sounds which are meaningless. They can be grouped and regrouped into meaningful units. This is the most economical feature of language. Examples

23、： /k/, /p/, /a:/ /pa:k/, /ka:p/ /m/, /ai/, /n/, /t/, /i:/Language is hierarchical:The advantage of duality, which lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements- for instance, tens of thousands of wor

24、ds out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts.discourse/texts sentences words morphemes sounds （PAUSE

25、 and RECALL：How about traffic lights?）3. Productivity (creativity)- Language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. when new situations arise or new objects have to be described, the language users manipulate their linguistic resources to p

26、roduce new expressions and new sentences.Source of productivity/creativity Duality of language（结构二重性） Recursiveness (递归性)：He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates whoDo worker bees display creativity? In one experiment, a hive of bees w

27、as placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flew around in all

28、 directions, but couldnt locate the food. According to Karl von Frisch, who conducted the experiment, “the bees have no word for up in their language”. Moreover, they cannot invent one.4. Cultural transmission Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather

29、 than by instinct.the case of “the wolf child” Genie1957年4月出生，从20个月起被关在小房子里，发出任何声音就受到父亲惩罚；大部分时间被捆在婴儿椅，或在婴儿床的睡袋里，床上罩着金属丝网14岁时被发现，基本无语言。给予语言训练，但语法进步缓慢。两词句，正常孩子只要几个星期，但她超过5个月使用No Mummy go这样的句式超过两年难以学会疑问句Chimpanzees and language:Gua, Viki, Washoe, Sarah and LanaNon-human primates do not have a physicall

30、y structured vocal tract which is suitable for producing human speech sounds. Apes and gorillas can, like chimpanzees, communicate with a wide range of vocal calls, but they just cannot speak.Review: 1. What is linguistics?2. What is language?3. What are the design features of language? (or properti

31、es of language)4. In theory, how can linguistics be classified?5. Who is the forefather of modern linguistics? 6. What is Halliday famous for?7. What is Chomsky famous for? 1.4 Body Languages and Other Languages”Qs: 1）What is body language? Can you name some kind of body language?2）Is it language? Why or why not? Examples: Hand to cheek thinkingTapping or drumming fingers ImpatienceTilted head InterestBiting nails Insecurity, nervousness1.5 Functions of Language According to Halliday(2003), there are three broad functions of language: 1 Idea