语言学框架.docx

1、语言学框架Chapter 1 In troducti on1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Defi nitio n Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage.1.1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学范畴Pho netics 语音学 /Pho no logy 音系学 /Morphology 形态学 /Syn tax 句法学 /Sema ntics 语义学/Pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：socio

2、linguistics 社会语言学 /Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 /Applied linguistics 应用 语言学1.1.3 Important distinctionsin linguistics语言学中重要区别1) prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性2) synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性 | SaussurS3) speech & writi ng 口语和书面语4) langue & parole 语言(抽象)和言语(具体)| Saussur5) competence & performane

3、e 能力和运用 | Chomsky6) traditi onal grammar & moder nin guistics 传统语法和现代语言学索绪尔一一现代语言学之父1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definition of language Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni cati on.1.2.2 Design featuresof Ianguage语言的区别性特征丨 Hockett(1) Arbitrari ness任意性：符号的音与义之间没有逻辑联

4、系。比如说，不同的语言 使用不同的音指相同的事物。Productivity/Creativity创造性：语言可以被创造。(3) Duality二重性：语言在结构上存在两个层次低层次 (音标)和高层次(词素、单词等)。Displaceme nt移位性：语言不受语言时空距离的影响。(5) Cultural tran smission文化传递性：语言体系具体内容的习得要通过后天的学 习来获得。1.2.3 Function of Ianguage(descriptive function/expressive function/social function)in formative 信息功能 /in

5、 terpers onal 人际功能 /performative 施为功能 /emotive 感情功 能 /phatic com muni cati on 寒暄功能 /recreati onal 娱乐功能 /metali nguistic 元语言功 能Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学2.1The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介2.2Phonetics语音学2.2.1What isphonetics?什么是语音学？ Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of Ianguage;

6、 it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlla nguages.研究语言的产生研究语言怎样被感知研究语音的物理属性广 articulatory phonetics发音语音学 three points of view auditory phonetics听觉语音学* acoustic phonetics声学语音2.2.2 Orga ns of speech 发音器官r the pharyngeal cavity - the throat卩因H空 the oral cavity - the mouth 口 H空、the n

7、asal cavity - the nose鼻H223 Broad and narrowtranscriptions宽式和窄式音标 The International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA国际音标）-Daniel Jones - 18882.3 Phonology 音系学2.3.1 Phonology and phonetics音系学和语音学 Pho no logy is the study about how speech sound in a Ian guage form patter ns and how these sounds are used to con

8、vey meaning in lin guistic com muni cati on. Phonetics is the scientific study of the phonic medium of Ianguage; it is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds.r pho no logy研究抽象的音位类型与规则 -一样Differences: l in leap & peel *、phonetics研究具体发音部位与方式-不同2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone音素、音位和音位

9、变体（1） 音素：是语音学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。 “”（2） 音位：是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。 “7”（3） 音位变体：是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现，同一音位在不同 语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。/k/: k school kh coll k ski k keel总结：语音学-音素-发音-音系学-音位-不发音-/ /2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体（1） 音位对立：

10、两个音位出现在相同的语音环境中，且具有区别语义的功能。例：tip 和 dip 中的/t/和/d/； rope 和 robe 中的 /p/和 /b/（2） 互补分布：同一音位不同音位变体之间的关系，且没有区别意义的功能。例：top中送气的th 和stop中不送气的t（3）最小对立体：出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合例：bill和pill （辅音）,bet和but （元音）2.3.4 Some rules in phonology 音系学规则2.3.4.1 Seque ntial rules 序列规则三辅音连缀规则：/s/ - /p/, /t/, /k/ - /I/, /r/,

11、 /w/2.342 Assimilation rule 同化规则2.343 Deletion rule 省略规则：g2.3.5 Suprasegmental features超音段特征2.3.5.1 Stress 重读2.3.5.2 Tone音调/声调2.3.5.3 In to natio n 语调Chapter 3 M orphology 形态学3.1 I ntroduction Morphology is concerned with word formatio n and word structure 形态学研究单 词的内部结构和构词规则。3.2 Open class and close

12、d class(1) Open class words开放词类： content words实词 -nouns, verbs, adjectives.(2) Closed class words封闭词类：function words 虚词 -conjunctions, articles.3.3 M or phemes- the minimal units of meaning词素一一最小的“语义”单位（reader是一个单词，read和 er是两个词素 / boys是一个单词，boy和s是两个词素）(1) Free and bound morpheme自由词素和黏着词素1 自由词素 有完整语义

13、 女口： book; helpful中的help2 黏着词素一一词根、词缀Allomorphs词素变体女口：a放在辅音前；an放在元音前 books, bags, judges的s三种不同的读音3.4 Analyzing word structuresroots and affixes (prefix, i nfix, suffix)3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(1) derivational morphemes派生词素：构成新单词 如如: -ate, inter-, -ism.(2) inflectional morphemes 曲折

14、词素：改变数、时、格、级 如:-s, -ed, -er, -est.3.6 M orphological rules of word formation3.7 Derivation 派生词3.8 Compounds 复合词3.8.1 Defi niti on A compo und word is made whe n two words are joined to form a new word.3.8.2复合词特征:(1) Orthographically 书写特征：in three ways: solid (airmail); hyphe nated (air-c on diti oni

15、n g); ope n (air force, air raid)Syntactically句法特征：复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性Semantically语义特征：复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和Phonetically语音特征：复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学4.1 What issyntax Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of senten ces.4.2 C

16、ategories4.2.1 Word-level categories（1） major lexical categories: n. v. a. prep.（2） minor lexical categories? determiner（ Det 限定词）一 the, a, this, those.degree words （Deg 程度词）一 quite, so, more. qualifier （Qual 频率词）一 often, always, almost. auxiliary （Aux 助动词）一 must, should, can. conjunction （Con连接词）一

17、and, but, or.4.2.2 Phrase categories a nd their structures（1） NP the pretty girl / VP often dream / AP very pessimistic（2） head 中心语；specifier 标志语；complement补足语4.3 Phrase str ucture rule4.3.1 XPrule4.3.2 Head432 Coordination rule： X X Con(连词)X4.4 Phrase elements4.4.1 Specifiers 标志语SpecifiersHeadsExam

18、plesdeterm inerNthe tree, no water, this book.qualifierValways fail, ofte n drink, n ever leave.degree wordAless boring, quite good, very sensitive.Palmost in, quite above.4.4.2 Compleme nts 补足语CPItemsHeadsExamplesAsAdjectivesafraid, awareI was afraid that n obody would believe meNsNounsfact, belief

19、She cantbelieve the fact that she would fail.PsPrepositi onsover, aboutThey argued over whether she had come to class.4.4.3 M odifiersModifierPositi onExampleAPprecedes the heada very careful girlPPfollows the headope n with careAdvPprecedes or follows the headread carefully; carefully read4.5Senten

20、ces ( TheS Rule )4.6Transformations4.6.1Auxiliary movement 助动词移位4.6.2Do insertion4.6.3Deep structureand surface structure (thegenerativeapproach生成学派)(1) 深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面 underlying level (移位还 没有发生的原始形态)：The train will arrive.(2) 表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage(移位后的 新形态)：Wil

21、l the train arrive?(3) 结构:The XP RuleIDeep StructureTran sformatio nSurface Structure464 Wh Movement465 Move aand constraintson transformationChapter 5 Semantics语义学5.1 What issemantics Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.5.2 Some views concerning the study of meaning5.2.1 The nam

22、ing theory 指称论(1) Plato(2) The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just n ames or labels for thi ngs.(3) Limitations: applicable to nouns only; 扌由象名词(ghost, joy, impulse.)5.2.2 The conceptualist view 观念论(1) Ogden and Richards(2) There is no direct l

23、ink between a linguistic form and what it refers to.(3) semantic triangle语义三角：Thought / Refere nee(能指：概念)Refere nt（所指：物体）Symbol / Form(词和语素)5.2.3 Contextualism 语境论(1) J.R. Firth, Mali no wski, Wittge nste in(2) Meaning should be studied in terms of situati on, use, con text - eleme nts closely lin k

24、ed with lan guage behaviour.5.2.4 Behaviorism 行为论(1) Bloomfield, Jack and Jill The Stimulus - Response Theory (S-R)刺激-反应理论5.3 Lexical meaning 词汇意义5.3.1 Sense a nd reference系统意义与指称意义(1) Sense is concerned with the in here nt meaning of a lin guistic form, the collectio n of all its features.(抽象；脱离语境)

25、如：dog(2) Referenee means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relati on ship betwee n the lin guistic eleme nt and the non-li nguistic world of experie nee. (具体)如:The dog is barking.(3) Limitation: evening star (启明星)and morning star (长庚星)是同一颗星。5.3.2 Major se

26、nserelations主要的语义关系5.3.2.1 Synonymy 同义关系(1) Dialectal synonyms - synonyms used in different regional dialects.地域同义词 如：秋天 (autumn / fall);公寓(flat / apartment).(2) Stylistic synonyms - synonyms differing in style. 文体同义词如: daddy, dad, father, male pare nt, old man.(3) Synonyms that differ in their emot

27、ive or evaluative meaning.感情同义词如: collaborator / accomplice均指合作者，但前者为“合作伙伴”，后者为“同谋”(4) Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词如：指 “坏的食物” rotten tomatoes, addled eggs, rancid bacon or butter.(5) Semantically different synonyms 意思非常相近的同义词女口： amaze / astound5.3.2.2 Polysemy多义关系-一词多义5.3.2.3 Homonymy - the same for

28、m, but different meaning同音同形异义关系(1) Homoph on es: ni ght / kni ght; piece / peace.(2) Homographs: bow - v. / n. ; tear - v. / n.(3) Complete homonyms: fast - adj. / v. ; scale - n. / v.5.3.2.4 Hyponymy上下义关系(1) Superordinate上义如: flower, animal.(2) Hyponymy 下义如： (flower) rose, lily.; (animal) dog, cat

29、.5.3.2.5 Antonymy 反义关系Gradable an to nymy分等级的反义关系如:cool - warm; hot - cold.(2) Complementary antonyms互补反义词 如： dead - alive; male - female.(3) Relational opposites关系反义词如： husband - wife; father - son.5.4 Senserelationsbetween sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y.如： X: He was a bachelor all his life.Y:

30、 He never married all his life.(2) X is inconsistent with Y.如： X: John is married.Y: John is a bachelor.(3) X entails Y. (Y is and entailment of X) 衍推 如： X: He has been to FranceY: He has been to Europe.(4) X presuppose Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X) 预设 如： X: The queen of England is old.Y: England has a queen.(5) X is contradiction. 矛盾如： My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.(6) X is semantically anomalous. 非正常的 如： The table had bad intentions.5.5 Analysisof meaning5.5.1 Comp onen tial an alysis - a way to an alyze lexical meaning5.5.2 Predicati on an aly