*acousticphonetics声学语音
2.2.2Organsofspeech发音器官
rthepharyngealcavity-thethroat卩因H空
'theoralcavity-themouth口H空
、thenasalcavity-thenose鼻H
223Broadandnarrowtranscriptions宽式和窄式音标
★TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA国际音标)---DanielJones---1888
2.3Phonology音系学
2.3.1Phonologyandphonetics音系学和语音学
★PhonologyisthestudyabouthowspeechsoundinaIanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
★PhoneticsisthescientificstudyofthephonicmediumofIanguage;itisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds.
rphonology研究抽象的音位类型与规则---一样
Differences:
[l]inleap&peel*
、phonetics研究具体发音部位与方式---不同
2.3.2Phone,phoneme,andallophone音素、音位和音位变体
(1)音素:
是语音学研究的单位,是一个个具体的声音。
“]”
(2)音位:
是音系学研究的单位,是抽象的概念,每一个音位是一组语音特征
的集合体,音位具有区别意义的作用。
“7”
(3)音位变体:
是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现,同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体,也就是语音。
[]
/k/:
[k]school[kh]coll[k'ski[k'keel
总结:
语音学-音素-发音-[]
音系学-音位-不发音-//
2.3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立,互补分布,最小对立体
(1)音位对立:
两个音位出现在相同的语音环境中,且具有区别语义的功能。
例:
tip和dip中的/t/和/d/;rope和robe中的/p/和/b/
(2)互补分布:
同一音位不同音位变体之间的关系,且没有区别意义的功能。
例:
top中送气的[th]和stop中不送气的[t]
(3)最小对立体:
出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合
例:
bill和pill(辅音),bet和but(元音)
2.3.4Somerulesinphonology音系学规则
2.3.4.1Sequentialrules序列规则
三辅音连缀规则:
/s/---/p/,/t/,/k/---/I/,/r/,/w/
2.342Assimilationrule同化规则
2.343Deletionrule省略规则:
[g]
2.3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征
2.3.5.1Stress重读
2.3.5.2Tone音调/声调
2.3.5.3Intonation语调
Chapter3Morphology形态学
3.1Introduction
★Morphologyisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。
3.2Openclassandclosedclass
(1)Openclasswords开放词类:
contentwords实词---nouns,verbs,adjectives...
(2)Closedclasswords封闭词类:
functionwords虚词---conjunctions,articles...
3.3Morphemes---theminimalunitsofmeaning
词素一一最小的“语义”单位
(reader是一个单词,read和er是两个词素/boys是一个单词,boy和s是两
个词素)
(1)Freeandboundmorpheme自由词素和黏着词素
1自由词素有完整语义女口:
book;helpful中的help
2黏着词素一一词根、词缀
⑵Allomorphs词素变体
女口:
①a放在辅音前;an放在元音前
②books,bags,judges^的s三种不同的读音
3.4Analyzingwordstructures
rootsandaffixes(prefix,infix,suffix)
3.5Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes
(1)derivationalmorphemes派生词素:
构成新单词如如:
-ate,inter-,-ism...
(2)
inflectionalmorphemes曲折词素:
改变数、时、格、级如:
-s,-ed,-er,-est...
3.6Morphologicalrulesofwordformation
3.7Derivation派生词
3.8Compounds复合词
3.8.1Definition
★Acompoundwordismadewhentwowordsarejoinedtoformanewword.
3.8.2复合词特征:
(1)Orthographically书写特征:
inthreeways:
solid(airmail);hyphenated(air-conditioning);open(airforce,airraid)
⑵Syntactically句法特征:
复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性
⑶Semantically语义特征:
复合词的意义具有习语性质,许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和
⑷Phonetically语音特征:
复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上
Chapter4Syntax句法学
4.1Whatissyntax
★Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.
4.2Categories
4.2.1Word-levelcategories
(1)majorlexicalcategories:
n.v.a.prep.
(2)minorlexicalcategories?
determiner(Det限定词)一the,a,this,those...
degreewords(Deg程度词)一quite,so,more...qualifier(Qual频率词)一often,always,almost...auxiliary(Aux助动词)一must,should,can...
4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures
(1)[NP]theprettygirl/[VP]oftendream/[AP]verypessimistic
(2)head中心语;specifier标志语;complement补足语
4.3Phrasestructurerule
4.3.1XPrule
4.3.2
Head
432Coordinationrule:
X—XCon(连词)X
4.4Phraseelements
4.4.1Specifiers标志语
Specifiers
Heads
Examples
determiner
N
thetree,nowater,thisbook...
qualifier
V
alwaysfail,oftendrink,neverleave...
degreeword
A
lessboring,quitegood,verysensitive...
P
almostin,quiteabove...
4.4.2Complements补足语
CP
Items
Heads
Examples
As
Adjectives
afraid,aware
Iwasafraidthatnobodywouldbelieveme
Ns
Nouns
fact,belief
Shecantbelievethefactthatshewouldfail.
Ps
Prepositions
over,about
Theyarguedoverwhethershehadcometoclass.
4.4.3Modifiers
Modifier
Position
Example
AP
precedesthehead
averycarefulgirl
PP
followsthehead
openwithcare
AdvP
precedesorfollowsthehead
readcarefully;carefullyread
4.5
Sentences(TheSRule)
4.6
Transformations
4.6.1
Auxiliarymovement助动词移位
4.6.2
Doinsertion
4.6.3
Deepstructureandsurfacestructure(thegenerativeapproach
生成学派)
(1)深层结构deepstructure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlyinglevel(移位还没有发生的原始形态):
Thetrainwillarrive.
(2)表层结构surfacestructure指结构形成的最后结果阶段finalstage(移位后的新形态):
Willthetrainarrive?
(3)结构:
TheXPRule
I
DeepStructure
Transformation
SurfaceStructure
464WhMovement
465Moveaandconstraintsontransformation
Chapter5Semantics语义学
5.1Whatissemantics
★Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.
5.2Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning
5.2.1Thenamingtheory指称论
(1)Plato
(2)Thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.
(3)Limitations:
①applicabletonounsonly;②扌由象名词(ghost,joy,impulse.)
5.2.2Theconceptualistview观念论
(1)OgdenandRichards
(2)Thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.
(3)semantictriangle语义三角:
Thought/Referenee
(能指:
概念)
Referent
(所指:
物体)
Symbol/Form
(词和语素)
5.2.3Contextualism语境论
(1)J.R.Firth,Malinowski,Wittgenstein
(2)Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context---elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.
5.2.4Behaviorism行为论
(1)Bloomfield,JackandJill
⑵TheStimulus-ResponseTheory(S-R)刺激-反应理论
5.3Lexicalmeaning词汇意义
5.3.1Senseandreference系统意义与指称意义
(1)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,thecollectionofallitsfeatures.(抽象;脱离语境)
如:
dog
(2)Refereneemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;it
dealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperienee.(具体)
如:
Thedogisbarking.
(3)Limitation:
eveningstar(启明星)andmorningstar(长庚星)是同一颗星。
5.3.2Majorsenserelations主要的语义关系
5.3.2.1Synonymy同义关系
(1)Dialectalsynonyms-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.地域同义词如:
秋天(autumn/fall);公寓(flat/apartment)...
(2)Stylisticsynonyms-synonymsdifferinginstyle.文体同义词
如:
daddy,dad,father,maleparent,oldman...
(3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.感情同义词
如:
collaborator/accomplice均指合作者,但前者为“合作伙伴”,后者为“同谋”
(4)Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词
如:
指“坏的食物”rottentomatoes,addledeggs,rancidbaconorbutter...
(5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms意思非常相近的同义词
女口:
amaze/astound
5.3.2.2Polysemy多义关系---一词多义
5.3.2.3Homonymy---thesameform,butdifferentmeaning同音同形异义关系
(1)Homophones:
night/knight;piece/peace...
(2)Homographs:
bow-v./n.;tear-v./n....
(3)Completehomonyms:
fast-adj./v.;scale-n./v....
5.3.2.4Hyponymy上下义关系
(1)Superordinate上义
如:
flower,animal...
(2)Hyponymy下义
如:
(flower)rose,lily...;(animal)dog,cat...
5.3.2.5Antonymy反义关系
⑴Gradableantonymy分等级的反义关系
如:
cool-warm;hot-cold...
(2)Complementaryantonyms互补反义词如:
dead-alive;male-female...
(3)Relationalopposites关系反义词
如:
husband-wife;father-son...
5.4Senserelationsbetweensentences
(1)XissynonymouswithY.
如:
X:
Hewasabachelorallhislife.
Y:
Henevermarriedallhislife.
(2)XisinconsistentwithY.
如:
X:
Johnismarried.
Y:
Johnisabachelor.
(3)XentailsY.(YisandentailmentofX)衍推如:
X:
HehasbeentoFrance
Y:
HehasbeentoEurope.
(4)XpresupposeY.(YisaprerequisiteofX)预设如:
X:
ThequeenofEnglandisold.
Y:
Englandhasaqueen.
(5)Xiscontradiction.矛盾
如:
Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.
(6)Xissemanticallyanomalous.非正常的如:
Thetablehadbadintentions.
5.5Analysisofmeaning
5.5.1Componentialanalysis---awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning
5.5.2Predicationanaly