新东方GREargument典型错误和提纲讲义.docx

1、新东方GREargument典型错误和提纲讲义一。survey, statistics, study, report, call, censor1。procedure of surveya. 选择性样本 selective sample（不满足随机性的样本）中b. 样本的数量 quantity of sample 小c. 调查的意义 大错误d. 调查所问的问题 question 中e. 调查者是谁 who的问题 小，且在题库里出现的频率小f. when的问题 when was the survey conducted? 调查在什么时间进行，时效性如何 中2。调查的结果 result a. 结果

2、中是否出现过于空泛的语言，模糊的数据，导致我们无法判断 中b. 调查的完整性 completion 大c. respondents of survey 调查的回应者1。forthright小，出现的频率小 2。代表性 representative 中二。 错误类比和错误对比false analogy and false comparison1. 错误类比 false analogy 大2. 错误比较 false comparison 大3. 单方面信息的问题大 4. 进行对比时，横向比较和纵向比较的混淆（comparison, variation）中三。 草率推广（无关概念，差异范围，从过去推

3、知将来）具体而定1. 无关概念的草率推广 2. 差异范围的草率推广3. 从过去推知将来的草率推广四。对策的充分性与必要性 sufficiency and necessity of the solution 大问题五。不全面的思维incomplete thoughts 1. 没有考虑结论的可能性 大2. 没有权衡好一件事的正负得失 advantages and disadvantages 大3. 非此即彼的错误 极端选择false dilemma/either-or fallacy 中六。cause-effect fallacy 因果关系错误 1. no causal relationship

4、直接无因果 大2. confusing the cause and the effect 因果倒置 大3. confusing concurrency and causality 混淆了同时性和因果性 大4. after this; therefore, because of this 发生在其之后因而必然由其导致 大-6-argu 对这一段话进行逻辑性的评价和质疑issue&argu: 立论 驳论 开放 收敛 考查语言表达能力和逻辑思维能力 1。掌握一些基本的分析能力 critical thinking 2。熟读题目3。学习一些闪光句型的使用4。大量阅读一些范文和期刊积累语言素材，形成文章各

5、个部分自己的写作模版5。列出每道题目的提纲6。考前全文写10-20篇来做练习准备策略：先分开再组合 开头 正文 结尾审题：两个部分conclusion & evidence 分清论据和结论 结论：会有些信号词 比如therefore, thus, hence, so等 反正引导结果的都可以表结论 还有clearly should 论据：表原因的一些词 because, since类型：facts, statistics, examples, 类比类推, comparison, authorities权威, assumptions指出这些证据不足以得出结论 e.g. 149The followi

6、ng is a memorandum from the director of personnel to the president of Get-Away Airlines. Since our mechanics are responsible for inspecting and maintaining our aircraft, Get-Away Airlines should pay to send them to the Quality-Care Seminar, a two-week seminar on proper maintenance procedures. I reco

7、mmend this seminar because it is likely to be a wise investment, given that the automobile racing industry recently reported that the performance of its maintenance crews improved markedly after their crews had attended the seminar. These maintenance crews perform many of the same functions as do ou

8、r mechanics, including refueling and repairing engines. The money we spend on sending our staff to the seminar will inevitably lead to improved maintenance and thus to greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for our airline.结论：第一句论据：有一个类比（飞机和赛车），两个事实假设（作者认为有些关系必然存在又有待证实）：1。improved

9、maintenance, 2。greater customer satisfaction, 3。greater profits这些是明显的假设 还有暗含假设（没明说，但有语言暗示，迫使你相信）：员工维修技术提高就是参加研讨会导致的，但我们会发现，这两件事具有时间上先后发生的关系，但未必是前者导致了后者，即如果要做A-B，最本质的工作是排除他因（排除其他导致该结果的其他可能原因）的工作，用排除他因来建立因果联系所以，要推翻别人建立好的因果关系就是要列举他因，赛车维修技术提高可能是1。赛车行业改了管理体制，效率更高了2。赛车维修人员最近自学成才，或得到大幅度的加薪，工作劲头足 3。赛车面对的维修问

10、题现在变的简单了，容易解决了 等等即alternative explanation 其他合理解释还有明显假设里的问题1 参加赛车研讨会会使飞机的维修技术提高，这是类比的问题，即使承认暗含假设的问题赛车员工维修技术提高就是参加研讨会导致的，但同样适用于飞机吗？false analogy 错误类比2 维修水平提高后会带来greater customer satisfaction 客户满意度，即影响客户满意度的还可能有一些更主要的因素，即往往都是一些客户能直接感受到的因素，比如一些服务 on-board service, 飞机上一般把登记以后的服务弄的比较好，但外围一些人员，比如地勤，售票，接待等，

11、这些人的素质仍然有待提高，还有票价 price , the discount，还有航空公司使用的飞机是否安全性好，还有非常关键的也是投诉最多的punctuality 准时率，很多东西直接影响客户的心情，满意度，而不会仅仅因为你的员工参加过什么研讨会就满意度提高 3 会带来greater profits，利润要从两个角度分析：a. 成本 cost b. 收入 revenue 这样看来收入未必提高，因为刚才提到的客户满意度未必增加，这样就选择这家航空公司的人未必多，这样的话成本倒会增加，即pay to send them to the seminar，另外还得有替他们的人，得给加班费，而且这些人业

12、务不纯熟带来的一定的风险，事故还得考虑c. 总体市场，整体萧条的话再折腾也未必带来多大的收入 d. 同行业的竞争 competition 两个原则：逻辑上：切中要害语言上：言简意赅 首先保证论证充分词汇语言上：正规的书面化的表达方式，言之有物的具体的语言表达方式（反例就是写作教程p189三分范文的第一句：The argument is well presented and supported, but not completely well reasoned. ）specific language句式上：适度复杂的复合句式结构读题的时候需要对以下语言成分留有足够警惕，这些地方往往是容易出现逻辑

13、漏洞的地方1。作者前后论据和结论各自讨论的中心概念，中心对象即时刻关注一下论据在讨论什么概念，结论在讨论什么概念，这两个概念在逻辑上有无必然的逻辑关系，如果没有，就是无关概念的讨论推广2。文章中所有的限定成分，修饰，就是那些定语状语包括从句，因为这些限定成分的存在导致作者观点的局限性特殊性，即作者有些看法在那些限定情况下是成立的，但不能讨论推广到一个更广泛的范围，比如更广泛的人群3。文章中绝对话的语言，绝对化的词汇最常出现的有四个：all, any, every, only, unique, 形容词词汇的最高级e.g. 写作教程 p186 6分范文Hospital statistics reg

14、arding people who go to the emergency room after rollerskating accidents indicate the need for more protective equipment. Within this group of people, 75 percent of those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protective clothing (helmets, knee pads, etc.). Clearly, these

15、statistics indicate that by investing in high-quality protective gear and reflective equipment, rollerskaters will greatly reduce their risk of being severely injured in an accident. in streets or parking lots是非常危险的地方，这些地方有很高受伤率是否证明其他地方也这样呢？这就是上面说的，限定成分所带来的特殊性，不能推广到更广泛的群体中high-quality 如果想达到作者所说的 预防伤

16、害避免事故的话， 难道只能投资于那些高质量的或者换句话说 昂贵的名牌的产品吗？severely 同样没根据，作者根本没说之前那些伤是slight injury 还是 severe injury，怎么到结论了又片面的说只要穿了这些high-quality装置就能避免be severely injured呢，有些事情穿什么都没戏，比如被大卡车撞了一下作者做的暗含假设：那些75%的人受伤就是因为没穿那些装备 三段式PS：不能为了展开自己的论证而做一些有悖于常识过于极端的假设，这会削弱论证力度写作步骤：（参考）1。浏览题目，同时写开头段（即读题审题写开头，其实在考场上只需写开头就可以，熟读题目和列出提

17、纲早已经应该做好）2。为每个正文段落写段首句TS，相当于列好提纲，这样做可以防止忘记以及合理的分配时间，与其断其一指，不如伤其三到四指，挑三四个比较主要的比较容易论证展开的写就可以3。在段首句的基础上逐一展开段落4。写结尾5。检查：拼写，语法，语言-如何写开头段-最偷懒的写法：1。复述结论（原封不动的照搬就可以）2。简要复述一下作者使用的论据或假设（用自己的语言做一些简化合并，把主要的论据说一下，因为题目说的很麻烦）3。来用一句话指出作者的论证存在缺陷（承上启下），不需要把具体错误写在这e.g. 写作教程 p192 argu149的开头段In this argument, the arguer

18、 concludes that sending the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines to a two-week Quality-Care Seminar on proper maintenance procedures will automatically lead to improved maintenance and to greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for the airline. To support the conclusion, the arguer points

19、 out that the performance of the maintenance crews in the automobile racing industry improved markedly after their crews had attended the seminar. In addition, the arguer reasons that since the maintenance crews of the automobile racing industry and the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines perform many of

20、 the same functions, the airlines will gain similar benefits from the training program. This argument suffers from several critical fallacies. In addition, the arguer reasons that 也可以变成and that第一句话没引出结论，而是最后的三条假设，逻辑上不够直接，再就是这个假设很多，论据也很长，可以再进一步简化，最后那一句承上启下太空洞太抽象，没具体语言（参照那个六分范文改一下）模版替换：同义词替换（最小的）e.g.

21、p193 argu159 The nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. But despite wide geographic differences, many citizens are experiencing rising costs of electricity. A recent study of household electric costs in Claria found that families who cooled their houses with fans alone spent more on electrici

22、ty than did families using air conditioners alone for cooling. However, those households that reported using both fans and air conditioners spent less on electricity than those households that used either fans or air conditioners alone. Thus, the citizens of Claria should follow the studys recommend

23、ation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity. In this argument, the arguer recommends that Claria should advise its citizens to install both air conditioners and fans for cooling in order to reduce the cost of electricity. To justify this claim, the arguer provi

24、des the evidence that many citizens of Claria suffer from the rising costs of electricity. In addition, he cites the result of a recent study that using fans alone costs more than using air conditioners alone, and that using both air conditioners and fans costs less than either using fans or air con

25、ditioners alone. A careful examination of this argument would reveal how groundless the conclusion is.1.conclusion-C2. evidence-E3.fallacy-F模版替换：1。顺序可以替换，可以ECF, FEC,2。CEF中的某一个可以简化，甚至可以不写，比如E3。某两个部分可以合并比如（CE）F, e.g. In this argument, the arguer cites that 论据 to reach the conclusion that 结论Citing evid

26、ence that 论据, the arguer concludes that 结论或者C和F合并（e.g. 6分范文：However, the conclusion that 结论 may mask other (and potentially more significant) causes of injuries and may inspire people to over invest financially and psychologically in protective year. ）4。可以加写让步语言 比如说完C后做一个让步：这么写有些意义，但存在critical falla

27、cies 也可以一开头就让步也可以与C结合起来193,238,180,158,147,239,144,145-7-逻辑错误：一。survey 调查数据的问题二。false analogy and false comparison comparability三。草率推广 hasty a-b 其实根本没必然联系四。对策的充分性与必要性，如果作者提出了solution，考虑一下，这个是否足以解决所说的问题（充分性）， 如果要解决问题的话，是否非要作者所说的方案不可（必要性）五。incomplete thoughts 不全面的思维，光看到事物的一个层面六。cause-effect fallacy 因果

28、关系错误 具体来看：一。survey, statistics, study, report, call, censorsurvey-抽样调查，general group 总群体，抽取出一定量的样本 sample，研究样本特征，然后把其返还到整体中影响调查结果有效性最关键的环节是sample的有效性：样本能不能代表你要研究的整体对象，样本的意见能不能代表general group的总体意愿所以样本得保证：有一定的数量 quantity，有一定的质量 quality(random sample)三个步骤：1.把要研究的general group分成若干个子群体subgroup, divide ge

29、neral group into subgroups2.每个子群体在总群体中所占的比例 percentage 3.随即取样 randomly 调查分成三个层面：1。procedure of surveya. 选择性样本 selective sample（不满足随机性的样本）中号错误比如1936年美国大选的时候，用的是telephone interview, telephone survey 但是没包括没电话的人（城市中的贫困人口，农村），还有overseas American，选电话号码的时候是随机的，但这个方式本身不随机如果题目告诉调查的是什么人了，就要考虑一下是不是用这种调查方法把应该包括

30、的都包括进去了，有没有有意无意的排除掉一些人群-e.g. argu193 The Department of Education in the state of Attra recommends that high school students be assigned homework every day. Yet a recent statewide survey of high school math and science teachers calls the usefulness of daily homework into question. In the district of

31、Sanlee, 86 percent of the teachers reported assigning homework three of five times a week, whereas in the district of Marlee, less than 25 percent of the teachers reported assigning homework three to five times a week. Yet the students in Marlee earn better grades overall and are less likely to be required to repeat a year of school than are the students in Sanlee. Therefore, all