英语语言学 lecture six讲课教案.docx

1、英语语言学 lecture six讲课教案英语语言学 lecture sixReview the chapter of syntax these are a few questions on some of points in the chapter of lexicon. Do you think whether the relationship between morpheme and phoneme is one-to-one? How about the relation between morpheme and sememe? What are included in bound m

2、orpheme?Syntactic structure句法syntax 研究句子结构，揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则。这些规则告诉我们词与词如何组合成句，句子由什么构成。线性顺序与层次结构linear order and hierarchical structure英语句子是按一定顺序排列的。句子的这种顺序是线性顺序。改变顺序意思会发生变化。这种关系也就是syntagmatic relation or positional relation chain relationIn the way of classification according to the word order, there

3、 are totally six possible types of language. They are SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS.各种语言的句子顺序是不同的。英语是S-V-O语言，日语、土耳其语等是S-O-V语言，威尔士语和希伯莱等语言是V-S-O语言，也有些语言的主语、动词、宾语的顺序是自由的。Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?As the relation betw

4、een a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigm

5、atic.The structural linguists regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.What is the relation of substitutability? And relation of co-ocurrence?语言是交际的工具，人们在交际中说出的最短的话语至少是一个句子，这样才能表达比较完整的思想。句子按说话的不同目的可以分为陈述句declarative、疑问句interrogative、祈使句imperative和感

6、叹句exclamatory等不同类型。句子里还可以包含句子。包含在一个句子里的句子称为小句。只包含一个小句的句子称为简单句simple；包含两个或两个以上小句的句子称为复合句。复合句按句中小句之间的不同关系分为并列复合句compound和主从复合句complex。几种基本的组合关系 （离心结构exocentric construction，向心结构endocentric construction）在句子和短语中词与词之间的基本组合关系有以下几种：主谓关系，修饰关系，动宾关系，动补关系，并列关系在传统语法中区分了由词的语法形式表现出来的两种主从关系：一致关系concord agreement和支

7、配关系。一致关系中，从属词的语法形式要随主导词的语法形式发生变化。一致关系主要表现在主语和谓语之间、修饰语和被修饰语之间。句子分析的方法句法分析是对句子和短语的结构进行的分析。语法学中句法分析的方法主要有两种，一种是句子成分分析发，另一种是直接成分分析法。句子成分分析法句子成分分析法是传统语法中通用的分析句子的方法。这种方法以词为分析的基本单位，根据句子和短语中词与词之间的关系，逐个确定句中的各种成分，然后在根据句中包含的成分确定句子的结构类型（即句型）。句子成分分析法从词开始“自下而上，从小到大”地对句子进行分析，因此英语里又称为“bottom-up”分析法。英语的句子成分通常分为主语、谓语

8、、宾语、定语、补语和状语。其中宾语又可分为直接宾语和间接宾语；补语又可以分为主语补语和宾语补语。传统语法从句子成分中分出主要成分和次要成分。主要成分是任何一个句子都不可缺少的。分析句子首先要找出主要成分，然后再找出从属于它们的次要成分，这样一个句子的结构就一目了然了。英语的简单肯定助动陈述句分为七种主要句型SV Prices rose。SVO Mary enjoyed classical music.SVC Your face seems familiar.SVAdv My sister lives next door.SVOO We wish you happy birthday.SVOC

9、The president declared the meeting open.SVOAd The doorman showed the guests into the drawing room.除基准句型外，还有与之对应的各种变换句型，包括：疑问句、祈使句、感叹句、否定句、 被动句、省略句、并列复合句、主从复合句、分裂句、外位句、there存在句、have存在句等。直接成分分析法 IC analysis另一种分析句子的方法是结构主义语言学（实际是其中的美国描写语言学派Bloomfield）制定的直接成分分析法。这种分析方法从句子出发，自上而下，从大到小，分析到语素为止，故英语里称为“top-

10、down”分析法。成分和直接成分语言中的任何表示一定意义的单位，如果它不只包含一个语素，就是可以分解的，这样的单位叫做结构体。一个结构体内包含的较小的结构体和语素都是这个结构体的成分，而一个结构体一次可以直接分出的成分则是这个结构体的直接成分。The old man has come to his sons house.直接成分分析法的一个优点是它可以区别某些歧义现象。例如Chinese fur coat 的层次结构可能是 Chinese fur/ coat , or Chinese / fur coat. 不同的层次结构与意义直接有关。汉语的“咬死了猎人的狗”也可以有两种不同的分析，咬死了/

11、猎人的狗，或咬死猎人的/狗。What is the criterion used in IC analysis?The criterion used in IC analysis is substitutability: whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. For example, in Poor John ran away, poor John can be replaced by John and ran away by ra

12、n without changing the structure, but poor John ran cannot be replaced by John or any other single word without changing the structure.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a

13、linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reasons of some ambiguities may be revealed.Conjoining & embeddingHypotactic &

14、paratactic relationsLecture five Meaning (Semantics & pragmatics)Outlines:What is semantics?What is meaning?Kinds of meaning The traditional approach The functional approach The pragmatic approachSense relationships Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Polysemy and homonymy Sense relations between sentencesSe

15、mantic analysis Componential analysis Predication analysis Relational components Logical elements1. What is semantics?The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. P105

16、语义可以分为词的意义word meaning 和句子意义sentence meaning. 本世纪60年代以前，语言学家只注重研究词的意义，忽略了句子意义。Philosophy, psychology and linguistics all claim a deep interest in semantics. The philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the world to which they refe

17、r and evaluating the condition of truth and falsehood of such expressions. The psychologists claim a deep interest in understanding the human mind through language. -philosophers: relations bet. linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the world-psychologists: human mind through language-Linguist

18、s: the change of word meaning, esp. the causes and rules of these changes in social and historical perspectives 2. What is meaning?II. Interpretations on Meaning1.Realist: All things called by the same name have some common property.唯实论：有同样名称的事物有共性 2.Nominalist: words are the symbols we use by conve

19、ntion to refer to things 唯名论（指称论）：约定俗成的名称而已3.Conceptualism / mentalism 概念论 / 心理论 This is presented by Saussures Sign Theory（1966） and Ogden and Richards Semantic triangle 符号理论和语义三角理论（1923）1) According Saussure, the linguistic sign consists of a Signifier and Signified 能指（施指）- 所指（受指）2) a sound image-

20、 a concept 3) linked by a psychological bond2)According to Ogden and Richard, the symbol of a word signified things by virtue of (by means of, because of) the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language. And the concept looked at from this point of view i

21、s the meaning of the word.That something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.Thought / Reference 相关(mediated) Concept/sense/Notion 概念 symbolizes refers to symbol/form indirect relationship refere

22、nt word 词 - object 事物signifier stands for signifiedcode realitySense may be used in the same way as “connotation” is used in philosophy. It may refer to the properties an entity has. In this usage, “sense” is equivalent to “concept”.e.g. Woman conceptual: human, female, adultdesk-a piece of furnitur

23、e with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writesTo explain the meaning of a word by pointing to the thing it refers to. (direct theory)The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. P107conceptual

24、meaning/ sense (both by Leech)-it refers to the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. P106Every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content, but not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost an

25、d dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Therefore people suggest that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4Mechanism机械论 Bloomfield: Define the meaning of word by means of science and chemistrySince one can define the names of minerals in terms o

26、f chemistry and mineralogy, one can define the English word “salt” by way of the expression “sodium chloride” or the symbol “NaCl”. So the nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena. It is restricted to the scientific definition of everything to which langu

27、age may contribute.5.Contextualism 语境论 The view is that one can derive (推测) meaning from the observable context or can reduce （还原bring）it to the original context. The situational context情景语境-speaker, hearer, action etc. The linguistic context言语语境-co-occurrence, collocation etc.6.Behaviourism行为论 Beha

28、viourists define the meaning of a language form asthe situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (Bloomfield, 1933) Bloomfields stimulus-reaction model 刺激反应模式 Jill Jack S r s R Stimulus-verbal reaction-verbal stimulus-non-verbal reactionAppleverbal reactio

29、nsound wavesnon-verbal reaction of getting the apple7.Functionalism功能论They argue that meaning could only be interpreted from its use or function in social life.So meaning is variable and is realized at different levels of language.3. kinds of meaning1) the traditional approachFries(1952) presents a

30、traditional distinction between “lexical” and “structural meaning”. The former is expressed by those “meaningful” parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary associated with the grammar.The latter expresses the distinction between the subject and th

31、e object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense and number, and the difference between statements, questions and requests.In a word, the total linguistic meaning of any utterance consists of the lexical meanings of the separate plus such structural meanings.德国语言学家和数学家Gottlob Frege 区分了词的指称意义reference 和词的系统意义sense. 指称意义是指词和句子等语言成分跟语言外部世界的关系；系统意义是指附加意义，指语言成分本身（主要是指词）之间关系的意义，它涉及的是语言内部关系，一个词的系统意义通过与别的词的对照关系表现出来。例如，ram的指称意义在于它指世界上为雄性的羊，ewe 的指称意义在于它指世界上为雄性的羊。如果把ram 和ewe 放在一起对照比较就会看出它们的系统意义，它们分别指特定性别的羊。Fatherson, uncle/nephew这两对词的系统意义是表示家庭关系； wide/narrow, dead/live, buy/