schema theorydoc.docx

1、schema theorydoc1.0 Introduction1.1 Research BackgroundListening deserves the equal importance as speaking, reading and writing, because as we all know language has two macro parts including input skills which means receiving information from the world such as listening and reading, and the other is

2、 output skills which means expressing information to the world such as speaking and writing. As an essential way of getting information, listening provides basis for communication. State Education Ministry is reforming college English teaching, with the target of “developing students comprehensive l

3、anguage competence, in particular, listening and speaking abilities to ensure effective communication in their future work and life.” More and more attentions are paid to the reformation of listening teaching methods.Listening has often been regarded as a passive skill. This is misleading, because l

4、istening comprehension demands active involvement from the hearer. In order to reconstruct the message that the speaker intends, the hearer must actively contribute knowledge from both linguistic and non-linguistic and sources (Littlewood, 1981:66). Thus, the background knowledge and prior experienc

5、e plays an important role in listening comprehension. This is the central idea of schema theory. The British psychologist Frederick Barlett is the first to put forward the schema theory in his works Remembering (1932), in which he defined it as follows: schema refers to an active organization of pas

6、t relations, or of past experiences which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organic response. According to this theory, the past experiences and knowledge must be organized and manageable, and they will provide the framework and direction for the hearers.1.2 Organization of

7、 the PaperThe paper consists of five parts. Part 1 presents the research background and the organization of the paper. Part 2 presents the introduction of schema theory including its definition, features and categories. Part 3 presents the factors which effect listening comprehension. Part 4 present

8、s the application of schema theory in listening. This part will introduce two schema listening models, the application of schema in listening and the related suggestions in listening teaching. The last part is the conclusion. The schema emphasizes on activating the existing schema to build the relat

9、ionship between the prior experiences and new information. It is an effective and practical way for English listening teaching. 2.0 Schema Theory The current part will focus on the basic ideas of schema theory including the definition, features, and main categories.2.1 Definition of Schema Theory La

10、st part has mentioned that its Barlett who firstly use the term of schema. After that, many definitions were given to schema in psycholinguistic field. American human intelligence expert Rumelhart adds, the knowledge in our mind is packed into units and these units are the schemata. He also holds th

11、e idea that the schema has the stereotyped structure and containing elements. According to Carrell and Eisterhold, only when new information and knowledge build the relationship with the previously acquired knowledge and experiences, can they have the meaning in comprehension. These acquired knowled

12、ge and experiences are called schemata. Definitions of schema are various, but the core of schema theory is that schema is organized knowledge structure just like a network which can provide framework and direction for listening comprehension.2.2 Features of Schema2.2.1Hierarchically-constructed Str

13、uctureSchema is consist of varied kinds of knowledge, its arrangement is hierarchical to present knowledge of all level from abstract such as science, philosophy, to particular objects, such as girl, dog. Every schema has its sub-schema and super-schema. For example, the schema “cat” might be the co

14、mponent of the schema for “animal” or “pet” or “living things”; it also contains sub-schema such as “fur”，“paws”, or “long tail”. The information a schema contains range from common events to the specialized one, from the micro to the macro.2.2.2Abstract Knowledge StructureSchema is abstract because

15、 the information in schema is not only the definition but also the distinctive features and properties. For instance, “desk” contains following properties: it has four legs and a slab, its distinctive feature is that it can be used for writing or having meals. On the other hand, “schema is abstract

16、in the sense that one schema has the potential to cover a number of texts that differ in particulars” (Wilson & Anderson, 1986). The knowledge in schema is general, because it has the features shared by all the elements. For example, when the schema “tree” comes to our mind, we will think about all

17、the trees rather than a particular tree.2.2.3Slots or Variables“Any important element or schema within a schema may be thought of as a slot that can accept any of the range of values that are compatible with its associated schemata.”(Adams & Collinse, 1979:4). That means these slots, typical and gen

18、eral facts can vary slightly from one another. For example, “meeting” has the general property that is many people get together and discuss something, but meetings are different from each other: different topic, different people, different time and different significance.2.2.4An Active and Dynamic C

19、onstructive ProcessAs we all know, our system of knowledge keeps changing, because our world keeps developing and our experiences and cognition capacities keep developing, too. The schemata in mind are active and they can be strengthened, modified, altered and extended in life to form new schemata c

20、ontinually.As to the definition of schema, there are different kinds and forms made by different scholars. According to Howard, when a schema finds concrete example in the real world, it is activate, because a schema is constructed with many slots, when new information and existing background knowle

21、dge are matched and fit into the appropriate slot, the schema is believed to be activated.2.3 Main Categories of SchemaFor understanding the schema theory much better, scholars proposed different categories of schemata. According to James, schema has three types: linguistic schema (The skills of dec

22、oding and discourse processing), formal schema (recognizing the rhetorical structure of the text) and content schema (knowledge of the content area of the text).2.3.1Linguistic SchemaLinguistic schema refers to the linguistic knowledge, including vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, phoneme, phr

23、ase and paragraph, etc. they provide the basis for listening comprehension. It is the first step to deal with the new information. Carrell and Eisterhold point out that the listener could not activate his relevant schema unless he has had enough language knowledge and has mastered quite a number of

24、listening skills at a certain level. If listener is lack of linguistic knowledge, he can hardly comprehend the new information. For example, if listener is lack of knowledge about stress, linking, elision and assimilation, he will encounter many problems during listening comprehension. Take the foll

25、owing dialogue for example:Man: My bike doesnt work again! How can I go to school?Woman: Had my bike been repaired, I would be glad to lend it to you.Question: What does the woman mean?In this dialogue, if the listener doesnt know the relevant schemata about subjunctive moods, he will misunderstand

26、the womans words.2.3.2Content SchemaContent schema refers to the background knowledge about the topic. It helps listeners to connect their own knowledge with the new information and help them to predict the new information. Thus, the familiar schema always helps listeners to comprehend easily and re

27、member more information, while the unfamiliar one causes difficulties. Carrell and Eisterhold pointed out that content schema includes cultural knowledge, topic familiarity, and previous experiences with a field.2.3.2.1Culture KnowledgeCulture is social heritage, or traditional, that is passed on to

28、 future generations, so people have the same culture tend to share the same schema. Just take the answer to “thank you” as an example, the Americans answer is “Youre welcome.”, while the Britishs answer is “Not at all.” or “Dont mention it.” Thats because the different culture.The Chinese has very d

29、ifferent culture from the English-speaking countries, which brings Chinese some troubles in the processing of learning English. When we listen to the news about American election, if we are not familiar with its political system, we cant get the exact information. According to this point of view, th

30、e acquisition of second language means being familiar with culture including customs, religions, political, habits, etc.2.3.2.2 Previous ExperiencesSome schemata are gained from learning in class, while some schemata are from the daily life. In the procession of living, we get know many things. Much

31、 definition comes into being in our brain. These schemata help us to build the basic cognition about the world and to adapt to the changing environment around us. Different people living in different environment has different schemata, thus they have different inference. In the procession of listeni

32、ng, the closer the listeners schema is to the speakers, the easier the text will be to understand.2.3.2.3 Topic Familiarity“If the topic is outside of their experiences or base of knowledge, they are adrift on an unknown sea” (Abersold & field, 1997:41). That means the familiar topic is easier to pr

33、edict and understand. The familiar topic provides a very useful framework for listeners to connect what they have known with the new information. For example, a student and an archaeologist take apart in a lecture about archaeology and its obvious that the archaeologist will feel easier to understand