schema theorydoc.docx
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schematheorydoc
1.0Introduction
1.1ResearchBackground
Listeningdeservestheequalimportanceasspeaking,readingandwriting,becauseasweallknowlanguagehastwomacropartsincludinginputskillswhichmeansreceivinginformationfromtheworldsuchaslisteningandreading,andtheotherisoutputskillswhichmeansexpressinginformationtotheworldsuchasspeakingandwriting.Asanessentialwayofgettinginformation,listeningprovidesbasisforcommunication.StateEducationMinistryisreformingcollegeEnglishteaching,withthetargetof“developingstudents’comprehensivelanguagecompetence,inparticular,listeningandspeakingabilitiestoensureeffectivecommunicationintheirfutureworkandlife.”Moreandmoreattentionsarepaidtothereformationoflisteningteachingmethods.
"Listeninghasoftenbeenregardedasapassiveskill.Thisismisleading,becauselisteningcomprehensiondemandsactiveinvolvementfromthehearer.Inordertoreconstructthemessagethatthespeakerintends,thehearermustactivelycontributeknowledgefrombothlinguisticandnon-linguisticandsources"(Littlewood,1981:
66).Thus,thebackgroundknowledgeandpriorexperienceplaysanimportantroleinlisteningcomprehension.Thisisthecentralideaofschematheory.TheBritishpsychologistFrederickBarlettisthefirsttoputforwardtheschematheoryinhisworksRemembering(1932),inwhichhedefineditasfollows:
schemareferstoanactiveorganizationofpastrelations,orofpastexperienceswhichmustalwaysbesupposedtobeoperatinginanywell-adaptedorganicresponse.Accordingtothistheory,thepastexperiencesandknowledgemustbeorganizedandmanageable,andtheywillprovidetheframeworkanddirectionforthehearers.
1.2OrganizationofthePaper
Thepaperconsistsoffiveparts.Part1presentstheresearchbackgroundandtheorganizationofthepaper.Part2presentstheintroductionofschematheoryincludingitsdefinition,featuresandcategories.Part3presentsthefactorswhicheffectlisteningcomprehension.Part4presentstheapplicationofschematheoryinlistening.Thispartwillintroducetwoschemalisteningmodels,theapplicationofschemainlisteningandtherelatedsuggestionsinlisteningteaching.Thelastpartistheconclusion.Theschemaemphasizesonactivatingtheexistingschematobuildtherelationshipbetweenthepriorexperiencesandnewinformation.ItisaneffectiveandpracticalwayforEnglishlisteningteaching.
2.0SchemaTheory
Thecurrentpartwillfocusonthebasicideasofschematheoryincludingthedefinition,features,andmaincategories.
2.1DefinitionofSchemaTheory
Lastparthasmentionedthatit’sBarlettwhofirstlyusethetermofschema.Afterthat,manydefinitionsweregiventoschemainpsycholinguisticfield.AmericanhumanintelligenceexpertRumelhartadds,theknowledgeinourmindispackedintounitsandtheseunitsaretheschemata.Healsoholdstheideathattheschemahasthestereotypedstructureandcontainingelements.
AccordingtoCarrellandEisterhold,onlywhennewinformationandknowledgebuildtherelationshipwiththepreviouslyacquiredknowledgeandexperiences,cantheyhavethemeaningincomprehension.Theseacquiredknowledgeandexperiencesarecalledschemata.
Definitionsofschemaarevarious,butthecoreofschematheoryisthatschemaisorganizedknowledgestructurejustlikeanetworkwhichcanprovideframeworkanddirectionforlisteningcomprehension.
2.2FeaturesofSchema
2.2.1Hierarchically-constructedStructure
Schemaisconsistofvariedkindsofknowledge,it’sarrangementishierarchicaltopresentknowledgeofalllevelfromabstractsuchasscience,philosophy,toparticularobjects,suchasgirl,dog.Everyschemahasitssub-schemaandsuper-schema.Forexample,theschema“cat”mightbethecomponentoftheschemafor“animal”or“pet”or“livingthings”;italsocontainssub-schemasuchas“fur”,“paws”,or“longtail”.Theinformationaschemacontainsrangefromcommoneventstothespecializedone,fromthemicrotothemacro.
2.2.2AbstractKnowledgeStructure
Schemaisabstractbecausetheinformationinschemaisnotonlythedefinitionbutalsothedistinctivefeaturesandproperties.Forinstance,“desk”containsfollowingproperties:
ithasfourlegsandaslab,itsdistinctivefeatureisthatitcanbeusedforwritingorhavingmeals.Ontheotherhand,“schemaisabstractinthesensethatoneschemahasthepotentialtocoveranumberoftextsthatdifferinparticulars”(Wilson&Anderson,1986).Theknowledgeinschemaisgeneral,becauseithasthefeaturessharedbyalltheelements.Forexample,whentheschema“tree”comestoourmind,wewillthinkaboutallthetreesratherthanaparticulartree.
2.2.3SlotsorVariables
“Anyimportantelementorschemawithinaschemamaybethoughtofasaslotthatcanacceptanyoftherangeofvaluesthatarecompatiblewithitsassociatedschemata.”(Adams&Collinse,1979:
4).Thatmeanstheseslots,typicalandgeneralfactscanvaryslightlyfromoneanother.Forexample,“meeting”hasthegeneralpropertythatismanypeoplegettogetheranddiscusssomething,butmeetingsaredifferentfromeachother:
differenttopic,differentpeople,differenttimeanddifferentsignificance.
2.2.4AnActiveandDynamicConstructiveProcess
Asweallknow,oursystemofknowledgekeepschanging,becauseourworldkeepsdevelopingandourexperiencesandcognitioncapacitieskeepdeveloping,too.Theschematainmindareactiveandtheycanbestrengthened,modified,alteredandextendedinlifetoformnewschematacontinually.
Astothedefinitionofschema,therearedifferentkindsandformsmadebydifferentscholars.AccordingtoHoward,whenaschemafindsconcreteexampleintherealworld,itisactivate,becauseaschemaisconstructedwithmanyslots,whennewinformationandexistingbackgroundknowledgearematchedandfitintotheappropriateslot,theschemaisbelievedtobeactivated.
2.3MainCategoriesofSchema
Forunderstandingtheschematheorymuchbetter,scholarsproposeddifferentcategoriesofschemata.AccordingtoJames,schemahasthreetypes:
linguisticschema(Theskillsofdecodinganddiscourseprocessing),formalschema(recognizingtherhetoricalstructureofthetext)andcontentschema(knowledgeofthecontentareaofthetext).
2.3.1LinguisticSchema
Linguisticschemareferstothelinguisticknowledge,includingvocabulary,grammar,sentencestructure,phoneme,phraseandparagraph,etc.theyprovidethebasisforlisteningcomprehension.Itisthefirststeptodealwiththenewinformation.CarrellandEisterholdpointoutthatthelistenercouldnotactivatehisrelevantschemaunlesshehashadenoughlanguageknowledgeandhasmasteredquiteanumberoflisteningskillsatacertainlevel.Iflistenerislackoflinguisticknowledge,hecanhardlycomprehendthenewinformation.Forexample,iflistenerislackofknowledgeaboutstress,linking,elisionandassimilation,hewillencountermanyproblemsduringlisteningcomprehension.Takethefollowingdialogueforexample:
Man:
Mybikedoesn’tworkagain!
HowcanIgotoschool?
Woman:
Hadmybikebeenrepaired,Iwouldbegladtolendittoyou.
Question:
Whatdoesthewomanmean?
Inthisdialogue,ifthelistenerdoesn’tknowtherelevantschemataaboutsubjunctivemoods,hewillmisunderstandthewoman’swords.
2.3.2ContentSchema
Contentschemareferstothebackgroundknowledgeaboutthetopic.Ithelpslistenerstoconnecttheirownknowledgewiththenewinformationandhelpthemtopredictthenewinformation.Thus,thefamiliarschemaalwayshelpslistenerstocomprehendeasilyandremembermoreinformation,whiletheunfamiliaronecausesdifficulties.CarrellandEisterholdpointedoutthat"contentschemaincludesculturalknowledge,topicfamiliarity,andpreviousexperienceswithafield."
2.3.2.1CultureKnowledge
Cultureissocialheritage,ortraditional,thatispassedontofuturegenerations,sopeoplehavethesameculturetendtosharethesameschema.Justtaketheanswerto“thankyou”asanexample,theAmericans’answeris“You’rewelcome.”,whiletheBritish’sansweris“Notatall.”or“Don’tmentionit.”That’sbecausethedifferentculture.
TheChinesehasverydifferentculturefromtheEnglish-speakingcountries,whichbringsChinesesometroublesintheprocessingoflearningEnglish.WhenwelistentothenewsaboutAmericanelection,ifwearenotfamiliarwithitspoliticalsystem,wecan’tgettheexactinformation.Accordingtothispointofview,theacquisitionofsecondlanguagemeansbeingfamiliarwithcultureincludingcustoms,religions,political,habits,etc.
2.3.2.2PreviousExperiences
Someschemataaregainedfromlearninginclass,whilesomeschemataarefromthedailylife.Intheprocessionofliving,wegetknowmanythings.Muchdefinitioncomesintobeinginourbrain.Theseschematahelpustobuildthebasiccognitionabouttheworldandtoadapttothechangingenvironmentaroundus.Differentpeoplelivingindifferentenvironmenthasdifferentschemata,thustheyhavedifferentinference.Intheprocessionoflistening,thecloserthelistener’sschemaistothespeaker’s,theeasierthetextwillbetounderstand.
2.3.2.3TopicFamiliarity
“Ifthetopic…isoutsideoftheirexperiencesorbaseofknowledge,theyareadriftonanunknownsea”(Abersold&field,1997:
41).Thatmeansthefamiliartopiciseasiertopredictandunderstand.Thefamiliartopicprovidesaveryusefulframeworkforlistenerstoconnectwhattheyhaveknownwiththenewinformation.Forexample,astudentandanarchaeologisttakeapartinalectureaboutarchaeologyandit’sobviousthatthearchaeologistwillfeeleasiertounderstand