写作篇Chapter Two Means of Paragragh Development.docx

1、写作篇Chapter Two Means of Paragragh Development 写作篇Chapter Two Means of Paragragh Development Part One Paragraph WritingChapter Two Means of Paragraph DevelopmentI. Logical Order of Paragraph II. Development by Examples III. Development by Time OrderIV. Development by ProcessV. Development By Spatial

2、Order . Development by Cause and Effect VII. Development by Classification VIII. Comparison /Contrast IX. Development by Combination of Methods1. Logical Order of a ParagraphA fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical order. Your choice of one kind of logic

3、al order over another will, of course, depend on your topic and on your purpose. You may even combine two or more different logical orders in the same paragraph. The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way o

4、f writing.1. Pretest Read the two groups of sentences below. Then rearrange them in logical order. Use the transition words and phrases and other clues to help you. Finally, rewrite the sentences as a paragraph. Group 1: F，G，B，A，D，C，E Group 2: D，E，A，C，F，B2.Logical DevelopmentsSome common kinds of lo

5、gical order in English are chronological order development by time or process; analysis- logical division of ideas; comparison or contrast; cause and effect, etc. Each kind of order has its own special words and phrases to show the relationships among the ideas. For example,chronological order first

6、, next, after that, finally, before the last war, after 1990, since then, in 2010, while working on the project, etc. showing difference or contrast the most noticeable difference, larger than, unlike, on the other hand, in contrast, differ from, etc. showing similarities or comparison similarity, s

7、imilarly, as expensive as, just as, just like, compare with, in comparison, etc. analysis Ideas are put into groups, and each group is discussed one after the other. first, second, third, etc.EXERCISES Read the following paragraphs and decide which kind of logical order is used in each one. Give the

8、 reasons for your choice. Circle all transition signals. Paragraph 1 Kinds of logical order: Contrast Transitional signals: for example, Furthermore, on the other hand, and, in contrast, but, In addition, whereas, however Paragraph 2 Kinds of logical order: Chronological order Transitional signals:

9、and so, Then in 46 B.C.E., and, not onlybut also, but, so in 1582, butII. Development by ExamplesExamples and extended examples, which are anecdotes or short stories, are perhaps the easiest king of supporting details to use. You dont have to search in the library for information; you can often take

10、 examples from your own knowledge and personal experiences. Furthermore, examples are usually interesting and make your writing enjoyable to read. Finally, since it is easy to remember a striking example or a good story, your reader is more likely to remember your point. 1. Pretest Read the paragrap

11、h on page 32 and page 33 and answer the questions.II. Development by Examples2. Examples There are two cautions you should keep in mind: First, use personal examples sparingly in formal academic writing because they are considered weak support. Second, be sure that your examples really prove your po

12、int. Study the following model to see how examples and extended examples can be used to support a topic sentence. Knowledge often results only after persistent investigation. Albert Einstein, after a lengthy examination of the characteristics of matter and energy, formulated his famous Theory of Rel

13、ativity, whichII. Development by Examplesnow acts as a basis for further research in nuclear physics. Using plaster casts of footprints, fingerprints, and stray strands of hair, a detective pertinaciously pursues the criminal. After years of work Annie Jump Cannon perfected the classification of the

14、 spectra of some 350,000 stars. Investigations into the causes of polio have provided us with the means for prevention and cure of this dreaded disease only after many years of research. As students, we too are determined in our investigation to find, retain, and contribute to the store of human kno

15、wledge.II. Development by Examples3. Extended Examples Sometimes, it is not enough to support your point simply with general examples. A more vivid and concrete illustration used as an extended example may light up an abstract idea and make it clear, interesting, memorable and convincing. Study the

16、following model to see how extended examples can be used to support a topic sentence.II. Development by ExamplesNonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication, or “body language”, is communication by facial expression, head or eye movements, hand signals, and body postures. It can be just as import

17、ant to understanding as words are. Misunderstandingsoften amusing but sometimes serious can arise between people from different cultures if they misinterpret nonverbal signals. Take, for example, the difference in meanings of a gesture very common in the United States. A circle made with thumb and i

18、ndex finger. To an American, it mans that every thing is OK.II. Development by ExamplesTo a Japanese, it means that you are talking about money. In France, it means that something is worthless, and in Greece, it is an obscene gesture. Therefore, an American could unknowingly offended a Greek by usin

19、g that particular hand signals.II. Development by ExamplesThat following incident illustrates how conflicting nonverbal signal can cause serious misunderstandings. While lecturing to his poetry class at Ain Shams University in Cairo, a British professor became so relaxed that he leaned back in his c

20、hair and reveal his bottom of his foot to the astonished class. Making such a gesture in Muslim society is the worst kind of insult. The next day, the Cairo newspapers carried headlines about the student demonstration that resulted, and they denounced British arrogance and demanded that the professo

21、r be sent home.4. Transitional Signals for Examples In developing a paragraph by examples, be careful to introduce examples with appropriate transitional signals. The following give commonly used transitions and their examples. Sentence Connectors for example for instance Others The following exampl

22、e (story/incident) illustrates (shows/ demonstrates) . such as as in the case of a good case in pointII. Development by ExamplesIII. Development by Time Order1. Pretest Read the sentences below. Then rearrange them in logical order.Use the transitional words and phrases and other clues to help you.

23、Finally, rewrite the sentences as a paragraph and tell on what principle you arrange the sentences.C，A，F，B，E，D，GIII. Development by Time Order2.Chronological Order Chronological order is one of the easiest methods of organization to master. Chronos is a Greek word meaning time. Chronological order,

24、therefore, is a way of organizing the ideas in paragraph in the order of their occurrence in time. Chronological order is used for something as simple as a recipe and for something as complex as a history book. In academic writing, chronological order has many uses. One of primary ways you might use

25、 it is to write a historical narrative about the subject of term paper.III. Development by Time Order? There are two keys to writing a good chronological paragraph: ? 1. Discuss the events in the order in which they occur. ? 2. Use chronological transition signals to indicate the sequence of events.

26、Analyze the following model paragraph for its organization by time. Underline any words or expressions that indicated time orderIII. Development by Time OrderThe Evolution of Computers In the relatively short span of sixty years, there has been an incredible evolution in the size and capabilities of

27、 computers. Today, computer chips smaller than the tip of your fingernail have the same capabilities as the room-sized machines of years ago. The first computers were developed around 1945. They were so large that they required special airconditioned rooms. About 20 years later, in the 1960s, desk-s

28、ized computers were developed. This represented a gigantic advance. Before the end of that same decade, however, a third generation of computers, which used simple integrated circuits and which wereIII. Development by Time Ordereven smaller and faster, had appeared. In 1971, the first micro-processo

29、r, less than one square centimeter in size, was developed. Today, modern microprocessors contain as many as 10 million transistors, and the number of transistors and the computational speed of microprocessors doubles every eighteen months.III. Development by Time Order3. Topic Sentences for chronolo

30、gical OrderThe topic sentence of a chronological paragraph in some way indicates the time order. In the model , phrases such as : in the relatively short span of sixty years and evolution give the reader a hint that this is a chronological paragraph.III. Development by Time Order4. Transition Signal

31、s for Chronological OrderTransition signals are especially important in a chronological paragraph. You have to be very clear about the sequence of events: Did one event happen before, at the same time as, or after another event?III. Development by Time Order? first , ? second, ? next, ? nowTransitio

32、n Words and Phrasesfirst of all , after that, finally, lastsoon gradually meanwhile? after ? as ? as soon as ? beforeSubordinatorssince until when whileIII. Development by Time OrderOthers ? In the morning ? Last week ? on the third day ? during the night Keep in mind that any time expression can se

33、rve as a chronological transition signal.III. Development by Time OrderEXERCISES 1.Put a check in the space to the left of every topic sentence suggesting that a paragraph will be developed by time and underline the word or words that indicate chronological order. (1) A persons intelligence is the product of both heredity and environ