Writing skills.docx

1、Writing skills应对作文式试题的五大步骤To write an effective exam essay, follow these five steps:(1) anticipate ten probable questions预测10个可能考到的问题(2) Prepare and memorize an informal outline answer for each question写下每个问题的答案要点并加以记忆(3) Look at the exam carefully and do several things仔细阅卷，牢记几点注意事项(4) Prepare a bri

2、ef, informal outline before writing your essay answer正式作答之前，先写一份简略的回答提纲(5) Write a clear, well-organized essay写下条理清晰、构思严密的作文式回答论证的策略Because argumentation assumes controversy, you have to work especially hard to convince readers of the validity of your position. Here arefive strategiesto help win ove

3、r readers whose viewpoint may differ from yours:(1)Use tactful, courteous language: You are attempting to persuade readers to accept your viewpoint. It is important not to anger them by referring to them or their opinions in rude or belittling terms. Keep the focus on the issue you are discussing, n

4、ot on the people involved in the debate.(2)Point out common ground: Another way to persuade readers to consider your opinion is to point out common ground opinions that you share. Find points on which people on all sides of the argument can agree. Readers will be more receptive to your idea once the

5、y have considered the ways in which you and they think alike.(3)Acknowledge differing viewpoints: The earlier you acknowledge the better. Ideally in the introduction. By quickly establishing that you recognize the other sides position, you get your readers “on board” with you, ready to hear what els

6、e you have to say.One effective technique is to cite the opposing viewpoint in your thesis statement. In the first part of the thesis, you acknowledge the other sides point; in the second, you state your opinion, suggesting that yours is the stronger viewpoint.Another effective technique is to use o

7、ne or two sentences in the introduction to acknowledge the alternative position.(4)When appropriate, grant the merits of differing viewpoints: Sometimes an opposing argument contains a point whose validity you cannot deny. Then, the strongest strategy is to admit that the point is a good one. You wi

8、ll lose credibility if you argue against something that clearly makes sense. Admit the merit of one aspect of the other argument while making it clear that you still believe your argument to be stronger overall.(5)Rebut differing viewpoints: To rebut means to point out problems with an opposing view

9、, to show where an opponents argument breaks down.摘自美国大学英语写作分类说明文的展开Developing a division or classification essay:When writing a division or classification essay, your purpose is to present your audience with your own unique way of dividing and classifying a particular topic. In order to write a suc

10、cessful essay, you will need to first choose a topic that interests readers and lends itself to being divided and classified.Once youve selected your topic and figured out how to divide it, you will need to provide specific details so that readers fully understand the categories you made. Whatever d

11、ivision you make, be sure to include enough details to make your division-classification method clear to your readers. And always keep your audience in mind, so that you can write an essay appealing to them.摘自美国大学英语写作要保持段落的整体性段落写作要遵循一致性或整体性(unity)原则。Uni是拉丁语的一个前缀，意思是“one”。段落的一致性是指文章基于一个统一的主题，段落内容应保持一

12、致,每个段落只能阐述一个中心思想，每一个句子都应与主题句密切相关，那些与主题无关和不能展开论证主题思想的句子应删除，从而形成一个严谨的段落结构。摘自新世纪实用英语写作（第三版）要注意标点符号一个完整的句子以大写字母开始，以句号结束。这也是初学者应该记住的一个简单的规则，因为写中文时可用逗号将完整的句子分开。写英文时用逗号代替句号、分号、冒号或破折号叫“逗号错”，这是中国学生需要避免的。摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）演绎法与归纳法主题句的位置比较灵活，通常位于段首,其优点是开门见山，一目了然。用演绎法(deduction)写的段落也称“扩张法”，就是以概述主题开首，随之辅以细说，即用具体细

13、节或事例来演绎展开主题句中的主题思想。用归纳法(induction)写段落也称作“收拢法”，从细节出发，最后归纳到段落的中心论点。用此种方法写作时，主题句一般位于段落的末尾，它是依据上文的细节推出的论点，起到画龙点睛的作用。主题句有时也位于段落的中间。这种写作方法常用来比较或对比不同的对象。段中主题句起承上启下、使上下文平衡的作用。为了强化主题，写作时可采用演绎法与归纳法相结合的方法。有时主题句可能会出现在段首而又在段落最后一句重述，前后呼应，两次点题可更加突出段落的主题。这就是所谓的“三明治式结构”(sandwich-style)。如果段落很长，运用这种结构可以给人更深刻的印象，并有助于读者

14、对主题思想的理解。在有的段落中，主题句甚至不直接写出来，而是通过细节的陈述含蓄地表达出段落的主题思想(implied topic sentence)。实际上它是客观存在的，只是隐含在字里行间，需由读者意会。 摘自新世纪实用英语写作（第三版）主题句和辅助句在段落中用于概括段落主旨大意的句子，叫做主题句。一个好的主题句能够准确地表达作者的观点或态度。在段落中对主题句起表述作用的句子叫做辅助句。辅助句用来解释、说明或扩展主题句所表述的主题思想。定语、状语构句规则按照英语构句规则，充当定语或状语的词、短语或从句必须尽可能地靠近所修饰的成分。如果忽视了这个规则，就会破坏语言表达的科学性和规范性。请看下面

15、句子：Misplaced ModifiersPlease give the book to the boy with the blue cover.That cat belongs to my neighbor with five kittens.George couldnt drive to work in his small sports car with a broker leg.以上的例子表明了句中的修饰语就是所谓的误置修饰语，它使句子意思混淆，引起误解，甚至荒谬可笑。摘自新世纪实用英语写作（第三版）使用具体的词更加利于表达具体词汇有助于使文章清楚、准确、生动和鲜明，因为与一般词汇相比

16、，具体词汇的信息量更大，表达力更强。General It is often windy and dusty here in spring.Specific In spring there is often a very strong northwest wind. It carries so much fine dust with it that sometimes the sun becomes obscure. There is no escape from the fine dust; it gets into your eyes, your ears, your nostrils, a

17、nd your hair. It goes through the cracks of closed windows and covers your desks and chairs.摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）如何使用习语习语是有特殊意思的固定短语，其意思和组成这个习语的各个词的意思大不相同。习语常用于发言和文章中，使得语言自然、地道。外国学生在使用习语时应注意两点：1）大多数习语用于非正式或口语化文体，谈话时可用；但少数是俚语，应慎用，如all balled up（使变得紊乱/一团糟），to cough up（勉强说出或供出）；2）很多习语由于用得太多而不再新鲜有趣，如armed

18、to the teeth，as good as gold，因而以少用为宜。摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）修辞格是什么词可以有两种使用法：一是按本来的意思使用；一是按引申的意思使用。后一种用法也可说是比喻的或形象的用法，目的在于激发读者或听众的想象。在a colorful garden这个短语里，colorful是按词的本来意思使用的；但在a colorful life和a colorfulcareer这两个短语里，colorful就是比喻的用法了。1）明喻明喻用like，as或其他词指出两个截然不同的事物之间相似之处的手法叫明喻。O my loveslikea red, red rose

19、. Robert BurnsThat man cant be trusted. Hesasslipperyasan eel.The old mans hair isaswhiteassnow.2）隐喻用一个词来指代与该词本来所指事物有相似特点的另一个事物的手法叫隐喻。这也是一种比较。不过这个比较是暗含的，而不用as或like点明。假如彭斯把上面引的那个诗句写成O my loves a red, red rose，省去原有的like这个词，他便是用隐喻而不是明喻了。3）拟人把事物或概念当作人或具备人的特质的手法，叫拟人。拟人在诗歌中很常见：Youth is hot and bold,Age is

20、 weak and cold,Youth is wild, and Age is tame.William Shakespeare4）换喻用某一事物的名称代替与之密切相关的另一事物名称的手法叫换喻。例如crown可以代替king，the White House可以代替美国总统或政府，the bottle可以代替wine或alcohol，the bar可以代替the legal profession等。换喻用得好，则可产生简明生动的效果：Swordandcrossin hand, the European conquerors fell upon the Americans.When the w

21、ar was over, he laid down theswordand took up thepen.Hispursewould not allow him that luxury.5）提喻指用部分代表整体，或用整体代表部分：The farms were short ofhandsduring the harvest season.He had to earn his dailybreadby doing odd jobs.GermanybeatArgentina2 to 1 in this exciting football match.The poorcreaturecould no

22、longer endure her sufferings.在上面的例句中，hands代表人，bread代表食物或生活费，两个国家名字代表两个球队，creature代表女人。换喻和提喻有相似之处：二者都是一种替换，有时它们与隐喻不易区分，因为后者在一定程度上也是一种替换。6）婉言即用温和或模糊的表达法替换生硬的或令人不快的表达法，例如：to die to pass away, to leave us; ones heart has stopped beatingold people senior citizensmad emotionally disturbeddustman sanitatio

23、n workerlavatory bathroom, mens/womens roominvasion, raid military actiondriving inhabitants away pacification7）反语这是指与真正的意思明显相反的词，用它的目的在于产生特殊的效果。假定你准备郊游，并且期待天气会很好，但是那天却下大雨。如果你不说天气糟透了，而说Whatfineweather for an outing!那就是用反语了。把野蛮的行为称作civilized或cultural，也是反语。8）夸大和缩小前者是把事情说得过分；后者是把分量或程度压低。两者的目的相同，都在于使陈述或

24、描写鲜明、有趣。She isdyingto know what job has been assigned her.On hearing that he had been admitted to that famous university, he whispered to himself, “Imtheluckiestman in the world.”It tooka fewdollars to build this indoor swimming pool.“He is reallystrange,” his friends said when they heard he had div

25、orced his pretty and loving wife.9）移位修饰把修饰语从它本应修饰的名词之前移到与该名词有关的词之前的手法，叫移位修饰。当某人说Ive hada busy day时，他就用了这个修辞手段，因为busy本应修饰人，现在却用来修饰day。10）矛盾修饰意思矛盾的词有时可用在一起，以达到加深印象的目的：The coach had to becruelto bekindto his trainees.When the news of the failure came, all his friends said that it was avictorious defeat

26、.The president wasconspicuously absenton that occasion.11）头韵两个或更多的词以相同的辅音字母开始，便构成头韵，如proud as apeacock和blind as abat。头韵常用于诗中来突出意思上有联系的词：Wherefore feed, and clothe, and save,From the cradle to the grave,Those ungratefuldrones who wouldDrain your sweatnay,drink your blood?摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）有时候问题不能一下子解

27、决的Sometimes, you may not succeed in problem solving on your first try; you need to break the problem down into smaller problems, called subproblems, and then solve them one by one till you achieve your final goal.“Most often progress toward the goal is not made along a single well-paved road,” Halpe

28、rn tells us, and “when the goal is not immediately attainable,” you often need to do a little means-ends analysis or take detours by listing appropriate means to your ends (subgoals for the subproblems) and then move on to the final goal.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维头脑风暴的准则都是什么？Brainstorming was originally pro

29、posed by Alex Osborn in 1963 as a method for group problem solving, but its also useful for individuals working alone. Brainstorming is also called“ideas cascading”1 where many ideas are generated to serve as raw material for later analysis. Bowketts suggestion for this activity is that “once you ha

30、ve identified the concept(s) to be brainstormed or the problem(s) to be solved, the golden rule is that all responses are valued and go into the melting pot.” Effective brainstorming requires participants to make links and to look at things in as many different ways as possible and to volunteer to c

31、ontribute freely without passing judgment on anything. Remember, refinement of ideas or critical thinking is for later use. At this stage you just write down the first thing that comes to mind; anything goesno idea is to be evaluated or judged, much less discarded.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维创意思维是需要避免感情色彩的It is imperative that creative thinkers overcome emotional blocks. To do that, as de Bono (1970) points out, is to suspend judgment. First, we need to be aware of the difference between being right and being effective:“Being right means being