研究生学术英语写作教程Unit 6 Discussing Results文档格式.docx

1、- Signal words of comparison and contrast- Writing practice: writing comparison and contrast, and writing a short discussion section- Classroom extension: writing a result section for a classroom experiment. 1.Reading Activity 1.1 Pre-reading Task The results section presents your research findings,

2、 and the discussion section is an analysis of those findings. You may include a discussion section at the end of your results section to explain and contemplate the results. The discussion can either be a part of the results section or a separate section of its own, which should be in line with the

3、practice of your target journal. Sometimes, the results, discussion and conclusion sections are combined in journal articles. Most articles do not contain all three sections.The function of the discussion part is to interpret your results in light of what has already been known about the subject of

4、the investigation, and to explain our new understanding of the problem after taking your results into consideration. The Discussion will always be connected to the Introduction by way of the question（s） or posed hypotheses and cited literature, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the Introduc

5、tion. Instead, it tells how your study has moved us forward from the place you leave us at the end of the Introduction.Before reading the following sample discussion section, think about the following questions:How many elements does a discussion section include?What do those elements function?What

6、expressions are typical in writing a discussion section?1.2 Reading PassageIn this large, prospective investigation of red and processed meat intake in relation to cancer risk, we found elevated risks for colorectal and lung cancer with both meat types. Red, but not processed, meat intake was also a

7、ssociated with increased risk for cancer of the esophagus and liver. We observed borderline statistically significant elevated risks for advanced prostate cancer with both red and processed meat intake, for laryngeal cancer with red meat, and for bladder cancer and myeloma and with processed meat in

8、take. The cancer site most consistently associated with meat intake has been the colorectum. A recent meta-analysis reported elevated risks in the highest category of consumption of meat. Our study included 1,000 colorectal cancer cases, and it lends strong support to implicate red and processed mea

9、t as risk factors for this malignancy. Consistent with previous studies, we observed a stronger positive association for rectal than colon cancer. We found a positive association between red meat intake specifically and cancers of the esophagus and liver, and a borderline significant positive associ

10、ation for laryngeal cancer. The first prospective study of meat intake and esophageal cancer was published recently; that study had only 65 cases and found a positive association for processed meat, but not red meat, with esophageal adenocarcinoma. Our study suggests a threshold effect for red meat

11、intake on esophageal cancer risk, beginning at a low level of intake, with no further increase in risk with higher intakes, as reflected in the p-trend （p = 0.13）, although it is possible that the referent group had a smaller-than-expected cancer incidence by chance. Data on meat intake and cancers

12、of the liver and larynx are limited, and our study is the first prospective investigation to report on these associations. Two case-control studies reported elevated risks for laryngeal cancer for those in the highest intake categories of red meat intake and fried beef/veal. Unexpectedly, we found a

13、n inverse association between red meat intake and endometrial cancer; this association was not attenuated by adjustment for known risk factors, such as body mass index or menopausal hormone therapy, or by fine control for smoking, which has been inversely associated with this malignancy. Previous st

14、udies have reported null or positive relations between red meat and endometrial cancer. We also observed inverse associations between processed meat intake and leukemia and melanoma. In contrast to our findings, childhood leukemia has been positively associated with intake of processed meats in a ca

15、se-control study. Previous studies of meat intake and prostate cancer are conflicting. Some studies have reported null findings, and others suggest positive associations. Despite finding no association between red or processed meat intake and overall prostate cancer risk, we observed a suggestion of

16、 an elevated risk for advanced prostate cancer with both meat types. If the relation of meat intake to prostate cancer is confined to advanced disease, this could explain some of the inconsistencies in the literature as most previous studies have not specifically addressed advanced prostate cancer.

17、With regard to breast cancer, a pooled analysis of eight cohort studies found no association with red meat intake; however, the two most recent prospective studies found positive associations for both red and processed meat, specifically for estrogen and progesterone receptorpositive breast cancers

18、in premenopausal women. Although breast cancer risk related to meat intake did not appear to differ by menopausal status in our study, we had very few premenopausal cases （n = 94） and lacked information on hormone receptor status for a large number of cases. Both red meat, regardless of processing p

19、rocedure, and processed meat can be linked to carcinogenesis by different mechanisms; for example, they are both sources of saturated fat and iron, which have independently been associated with carcinogenesis. Associations between saturated fat and cancer are likely to be related to energy balance i

20、n general, whereas iron is thought to contribute to carcinogenesis specifically by generating free radicals and inducing oxidative stress. Most recently, dietary fat was positively associated with breast cancer, and iron intake was positively associated with liver and colorectal cancers. This study

21、was primarily limited by its relatively small sample size. An earlier start in data collection would have increased the time needed to survey more participants. Ideally, the number of participant would have been more evenly distributed across gender/year in population. A larger sample with diversity

22、 would have benefited our results. Other limitations of this study included some degree of possible measurement errors, although we attempted at minimizing the error in measurement and the measurement data compared very favorably to other researches. In conclusion, a diet high in red or processed me

23、at was associated with an elevated risk of both colorectal and lung cancer; in addition, red meat was associated with an elevated risk of esophageal and liver cancer. A decrease in the consumption of red and processed meat could reduce the incidence of cancer at multiple sites. 1.3 Reading Comprehen

24、sion1.3.1What are the results discussed?1.3.2Decide how many elements this sample includes and how they function.Elements Functions2Language Focus2.1 Cause and effect2.1.1 Read the following sentence from the text, and see the causal relations. Associations between saturated fat and cancer are likel

25、y to be related to energy balance in general, whereas iron is thought to contribute to carcinogenesis specifically by generating free radicals and inducing oxidative stress.EffectCause2.1.2 Using signal words for causal relations.Emphasising causeThe death rate from cancer is increasingbecauseowing

26、to the fact thatpeople are smoking more.The fact thatthe death rate from cancer is increasingis due tomay be due topeople smoking more.TheOnereason forcause ofthe death rate from cancer increasingis thatcould be thatAn increase in the death rate from cancerismay beone effect ofone result ofone conse

27、quence ofcaused bydue tobecause ofresults fromarises fromEmphasising effectPeople are smoking more.Therefore,So,Thus,Hence,Consequently, Because of this,For this reason,As a consequence,As a result,the death rate from cancer is increasing.People are smoking more,as a result of whichas a consequence

28、of whichwith the result thatOwing topeople smoking more,effect ofresult ofconsequence ofpeople smoking moreis toincrease the death rate from cancer.People smoking moreresults inleads toproducescausesis the cause ofgives rise tobrings aboutan increase in the death rate from cancer.People smoke more,（

29、so）（thus）（thereby）resulting inleading toproducingcausinggiving rise tobringing aboutIfpeople smoke more,the death rate from cancer will increase.Additionally, you should be careful when using commas. Conjunctions such as therefore, consequently, as a result, and for this reason are usually followed by a comma, as in these examples: The weather was cold; therefore, Sally closed the window. The weather was cold. Therefore, Sally put on her coat. Consequently, Sally put on her scarf. A blizzard hit the town. As a result, the schools were closed.2.1.3 Causal markersCompl