语言学文档格式.docx

1、 It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. 5.意义Sense Its concerned with the inherent meanin

2、g of the linguistic form. Its the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, its abstract and de-contextualized. 6.所指意义Reference It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic wor

3、ld of experience. 7.同义词Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 8.多义词Polysemy It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. 9.同音（形）异义Homo

4、nymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 10.同音异义Homophones It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign. 11.同形异义Homographs It refers to two words are identical in for

5、m .e.g. tear v./tear n. 12.上下义关系Hyponymy It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 13.反义词Antonymy Its the term used for

6、oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 14.成分分析法Componential Analysis-分析词汇抽象意义 Its a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. 15.述谓结构分

7、析Predication Analysis 由British Linguist G.Leech提出 Its a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. 通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。16.先设前提Presupposition Its a semantic

8、 relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. 17.蕴涵Entailment Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde.Chapter 6 pragmatics一 、定义 1. Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of

9、a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2. The distinguish between semantics and pragmatics: whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.1.语境Context The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, its generally considered as constituted

10、 by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.3. Sentence meaning（句子意义）: studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.4. Utterance meaning（话语意义）: is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real

11、 situation of communication, or simply in a context.2.言语行为理论Speech act theory Speech act theory: is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.The distinction between constatives（叙事话语） and performatives（行事话语）: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verif

12、iable; performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. According to Austins new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.3.叙述句Consta

13、tives Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;4.行为句Performatives Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. 5.言内行为Locutionary Act A locutionary act is the act of uttering

14、 words, phrases ,clauses. its the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 6.言外行为Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention its the act performed in saying something. 7.言后行为 Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the ac

15、t performed by or resulting from saying something. its the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance. Five types of Searl:a: Representatives: stating or describing, saying that the speaker believes to be true.directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.b: Commissives：comm

16、itting the speaker himself to some future course of action.c: Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.d: Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something.8.合作原则Cooperative Principle Its proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is ab

17、out that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 9.会话含义Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he sh

18、ares the speakers knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP. 话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。5. The four maxims under this general principle: a. the maxim of quantity（数量）: 你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求 A. make your contribution as informative as required.B.

19、 Do not make your contribution more imformative than is required. b. the maxim of quality（质量） 不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话 C. do not say what you believe to be false.D. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. c. the maxim of relation（关系）: be relevant. 使你的话与话题相关be relevant d. The maxim of manne

20、r（方式）: 避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序 avoid obscurity of expression avoid ambiguity be brief be orderlychapter 7 language change1. Sound change: sound changes tend to be systematic; it is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of the English language.2. Morphological and sy

21、ntactic changea. change in “agreement rule”b. change in negation rulec. process of simplification: there may be a loss of grammatical distinctions, through a process of simplification.d. Loss of inflections:3. Vocabulary change include:a. addition of new wordsb. loss of wordsc. changes in the meanin

22、g of words.4. Addition of new words:a. coinage: a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose.b. Clipped words（省略词）: the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.c. Blending（混合词）: a word formed by combining parts of other words.d. Acronyms（大写字母词）: words derived from the initials of several wo

23、rds.e. Back-formation（逆构词）: New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.f. Functional shift: words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.g. Borrowing（外来词）: when different cultures come into co

24、ntact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another. The loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word.5. Loss of words6. Changes in the meaning of words:a. widening of meaning:b. narrowing of meaningc. meaning shift7. the influence of science a

25、nd technologya . space travelb. computer and internet languagec. ecology: the study of the relationship between plants, animals, people, and their environment, and the balances between these relationships. Chapter 8 Language and society1. sociolinguistics: sub-field of linguistics that studies the r

26、elation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2. Indications of the inter-relationship between language and society:a. while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and mainta

27、in social relationships.b. Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently.c. To some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society.2. Speech community: in sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as m

28、embers of social groups. The social group that is singled out for any special study.3. Speech variety: or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. 5. Regional dialect: a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographica

29、l region.6. Social-class dialect: or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.7. Idiolect: a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.8. Ethnic dialect: a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is