1、虽然女性确实在政界担任较少工作,但这不意味着女性群体中所有的人都是这样。2.过度概化 (Hasty Generalization)McDonalds and KFC offer foods with little nutrition, and thus we cannot expect any fast food restaurant to provide us with nutritious foods.两个个例不足以推出一个真理。3.因果颠倒 (Post Hoc)Most young criminals watch violent movies before they mit their
2、crimes; obviously, violent movies lead to juvenile delinquency.甲事情发生在乙事情之前,这并不代表着先发生的甲事情就是后发生的乙事情的原因。4.矛盾前提 (Contradictory Premises)If God can do everything, can he make a stone so heavy that he cant carry?前提条件中就有相互矛盾的地方,结论当然是错误的。5.感性论证 (Ad Misericordiam)Think of all the poor, starving African child
3、ren! How could rich countries be so cruel as not to help them?抒情是不能当作论证的。6.错误类比 (False Analogy)Young children are like flowers-flowers should stay away from terrible weather to grow, so children need to get rid of everything negative.点评:孩子和花朵的区别太大。成长的过程也太复杂。最好不要用这两者来类比。7.虚假假设 (Hypothesis Contrary to
4、 Fact)If TV were not invented, today people would never have such wonderful entertainment brought by TV.因为电视已经被发明了,对于过去的否定假设后所得出的结论都是逻辑上的错误结论。8.无关转移 (Red Herring)Many people say we need to exploit the outer space, a point which I believe is wrong, because there are so many poor people on Earth who h
5、ardly make ends meet.有一个问题没解决并不代表着另一个问题不值得解决。9.从众错误 (Bandwagon)Everyone says it is justified to learn a second language so we must learn one.人人都说,或者大多数都说,这并不意味着该观点正确。10.滑坡谬误 (Slippery slope)If we dont care about the environment, the world will die in 50 years.从环境问题到世界灭亡,中间有无数环节未提供论证。Examples of Slip
6、pery Slope1.We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, theyll be charging $40,000 a semester!2.The US shouldnt get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die.3.You can never give anyone a break. If you
7、do, theyll walk all over you.4.Weve got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books!11. appeal to emotionYou attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or p
8、elling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. Its important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a logical argument,
9、or to obscure the fact that no pelling rational reason exists for ones position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very mon and effective argument tactic, but theyre ultimately flawed, dishonest, and tend to make ones opponents justifiably emotional.Ex
10、ample:Luke didnt want to eat his sheeps brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who werent fortunate enough to have any food at all.12 . ad hominem,personal attack 人身攻击You attacked your opponents chara
11、cter or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argument. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someon
12、es case without actually having to engage with it.Example:After Sally presents an eloquent and pelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isnt married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.第七条:诉诸虚伪13. loaded quest
13、ion 含沙射影You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldnt be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is pelled to defend
14、 themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.Example:Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a drug habit.14 . appeal to authority诉诸权威You said that
15、because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.Its important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a
16、demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However it is, entirely possible that the opinion of a person or institution of authority is wrong; therefore the authority that such a person or institution holds does not have any i
17、ntrinsic bearing upon whether their claims are true or not.Example:Not able to defend his position that evolution isnt true Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isnt a primate).15 窃取论点. begging the questionYou presented a circular argument in which the conc
18、lusion was included in the premise.This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because its not very good.Example:The word of Zorbo the Great is fl
19、awless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbos Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.第二部分以下完整版留着资料用。第一条:稻草人1. strawman/straw manYou misrepresented someones argument to make it easier to attack.By exagger
20、ating, misrepresenting, or just pletely fabricating someones argument, its much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine honest rational debate.Example:After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren resp
21、onded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.第二条:错误归因2. false causeYou presumed that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.Many people confuse correlatio
22、n (things happening together or in sequence) for causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a mon cause.Example:Pointing to a fancy chart, Roger shows how temperatures have been rising over the past few centurie
23、s, whilst at the same time the numbers of pirates have been decreasing; thus pirates cool the world and global warming is a hoax.第三条:诉诸感情3. appeal to emotionYou attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or pelling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hat
24、red, pity, pride, and more. It第四条:谬误谬误4. the fallacy fallacyYou presumed that because a claim has been poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that the claim itself must be wrong.It is entirely possible to make a claim that is false yet argue with logical coherency for that claim, just as is poss
25、ible to make a claim that is true and justify it with various fallacies and poor arguments.Example:Recognising that Amanda had mitted a fallacy in arguing that we should eat healthy food because a nutritionist said it was popular, Alyse said we should therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every d
26、ay.第五条:滑坡谬误5. slippery slopeYou said that if we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen too, therefore A should not happen.The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to extreme hypotheticals. Because no proof is presented
27、to show that such extreme hypotheticals will in fact occur, this fallacy has the form of an appeal to emotion fallacy by leveraging fear. In effect the argument at hand is unfairly tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture.Example:Colin Closet asserts that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the next thing we know well be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.第六条:人身攻击6. ad hominem,personal attackYou attacked your opponentAfter Sally presents an eloquent and pelling case for a more equitable taxation system,
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