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1、2 WATER CONSERVATION AND DEMAND MANAGEMENT POTENTIAL IN THE SECTOR 3 CHALLENGES TO APPLYING WATER CONSERVATION AND DEMAND MANAGEMENT 3.1 Why some WUAs fail or do not perform? 3.1.1 Challenges associated with the formation of the WUAs 3.1.2 Challenges associated with the effectiveness of the WUAs 3.1

2、.3 Support services that would enhance the effectiveness of WUAs4 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS5 ROLES OF CMAs, WUAs AND FARMERS IN WC / DM 5.1 The role of CMAs in WC/DM 5.2 The role of WUAs in WC/DM 5.3 The role of the water user in WC/DM 6 OBJECTIVES OF THE WC/DM STRATEGY7 IMPLEMENTATION OF WC/DM IN

3、THE SECTOR8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACRONYMSARC Agricultural Research Council BMPs Best Management PracticesCMA Catchment Management AgencyCMS Catchment Management StrategyDSE Diverse Sideline EnterpriseDWAF Department of Water Affairs and ForestryIRP Integrated Resource Planning IWMI International Water M

4、anagement InstituteIWRM Integrated Water Resource Management FAO Food and Agriculture OrganisationNDA National Department of Agriculture NWA National Water Act （Act 36 of 1998）NWCDMS National Water Conservation and Demand Management StrategyNWCSF National Water Conservation Strategy FrameworkNWRS Na

5、tional Water Resource StrategyPDA Provincial Department of agricultureSAII South African Irrigation InstituteWC/DM Water Conservation and Demand ManagementWMP Water Management PlanWRC Water Research CommissionWUA Water User AssociationEXECUTIVE SUMMARY1 INTRODUCTION1.1 BackgroundSouth Africa is a se

6、mi-arid country where water is of critical strategic importance to all development, in any sector of the economy. Recognising the potential limiting effect that water could have on future economic expansion in this country, it is of utmost importance that this resource be optimally utilised to the b

7、enefit of all current and future users.The National Water Act （Act 36 of 1998） （NWA） provides for water to be protected, utilised, developed, conserved, managed and controlled, in a sustainable and equitable manner.Water conservation is defined as the minimisation of loss or waste, care and protecti

8、on of water resources and the efficient and effective use of water.Water demand management is defined as the adaptation and implementation of a strategy （policies and initiatives） by a water institution to influence the water demand and usage of water in order to meet any of the following objectives

9、: economic efficiency, social development, social equity, environmental protection, sustainability of water supply and services, and political acceptability. 1.3 Integrated Resource Planning （IRP）.The IRP process is a comprehensive form of planning that encompasses least-cost analyses of demand-side

10、 and supply-side management options. It also encompasses the following: An open and participatory decision-making process; The development of water resource alternatives that incorporate consideration of a communitys quality of life and environmental issues which may be impacted upon by the ultimate

11、 decisions taken; and The recognition of the multiple institutions concerned with water resources and the competing policy goals amongst them. The IRP process identifies opportunities to achieve societal and environmental benefits through joint utility programmes. Examples include: energy and water

12、partnerships that conserve both energy and water; water conservation and waste water treatment and reuse programmes, where both water supply development and waste water treatment plant capacity expansion costs are saved, and, the reallocation of existing water supply resources among competing users.

13、1.4 The Integrated Water Resource Management （IWRM）.The IWRM is the idea that instead of the usual sectoral approach to developing and managing water resources, it is necessary to recognise that river basins are complex systems, in which use of water for one purpose has important implications for ot

14、her uses. Focusing attention on water basins （a term that includes the upper and lower areas of the basin as well as the groundwater） enables a systematic approach, considering the socio-economic, and human dimensions as well as the physical. Classical efficiency considers water flowing into drains

15、as a loss. But because of reuse, from a basin perspective one persons wasted drainage water is anothers vital source. While efficiencies at field level may be low, in the same basin the overall effective efficiency of a basin may be quite high, and the real opportunities to save water by improving e

16、fficiency may therefore be limited.This will be particularly so in the case of closed water systems. As population and economic growth increase the demand for water basins evolve from being open （where unused water is still available for additional uses） to being （where all useable flows are capture

17、d and distributed）. Most water basins in arid areas and many basins even in non-arid areas are becoming closed basins. This has very important policy implications, as noted. For example, as upstream uses reduce the quality or quantity of flows downstream, different users become increasingly interdep

18、endent. Managing this interdependency is an important public function, which few developing countries are equipped to do. It is very difficult to develop effective institutional mechanisms to manage water systems, particularly were political or administrative boundaries do not coincide with watershe

19、d boundaries, or where competing partisan interests are powerful and entrenched.In South Africa, the following factors aggravates the problems, which must be overcome, in planning for the future: The typical climate is semi-desert and the average rainfall for the country is just over half of the wor

20、ld average of 900 mm / annum. Rainfall is variable and droughts followed by floods are common occurrences. The distribution of rainfall varies significantly and the availability of water resources is very uneven, with approximately 60% of river flow arising from only 20% of the land area. South Afri

21、ca has limited groundwater, which can be used for irrigation. Some of the metropolitan and industrial growth centres have developed around mineral deposits and are situated far from major water resources. South Africas average evaporation rate exceeds its precipitation rate. Irrigation is therefore

22、vital to stabilize and increase the production of food and fibre. South Africa has a population growth rate of between 2 and 3 percent. South Africa is a developing country with a growing economy. The life style of South Africans is changing corresponding to an increase in per capita consumption. Th

23、ere is a large backlog of housing and basic services. Non-uniform payment for services in all water user sectors. 1.3 Overview of the development of water conservation and demand management in South AfricaIn May 1999 DWAF developed the National Water Conservation Strategy Framework （NWCSF） document,

24、 which was widely published for comments. This framework document provided a solid foundation for the development of the five Water Conservation and Demand Management （WC/DM） sectoral strategies viz.: Agriculture, Forestry, Industry, Mining and Power Generation, Local Authorities and Services Instit

25、utions, and Environment and Water Resources. The sectoral strategies will also exist as stand alone documents. The key elements of each sectoral strategy will be synthesised to produce the National Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy （NWCDMS） The latter document will be contributed to

26、the National Water Resource Strategy （NWRS）. The key elements contained in the NWCDMS will also serve as the directorate water conservations input to the development of Catchment Management Strategy （CMS） guidelines. The processes outlined above are depicted diagrammatically below.Top2 WC / DM POTEN

27、TIAL IN THE SECTORThe greatest potential impact of WC/DM in the agricultural sector can be achieved by addressing wastage due to conveyance losses and the inefficient application of water. Water wastage is classified as water, intended to perform a specific task, but not used for that purpose due to

28、 losses in transit. Seepage from irrigation canals which causes water-logging of adjacent land, is lost because of percolation, evaporates from land surfaces, or becomes degraded in quality of return flows, etc. are good examples of wastage. Similar wastages can also be seen in stock-watering system

29、s, but as stock watering accounts for less that 1.5% of all water usage in the country, more emphasis is placed on preventing irrigation water wastage.In South Africa, large volumes of water must be transported over large distances from the water-rich eastern areas to water-poor western areas. Water

30、 is of high value and the prevention of losses and optimal application of water is a high priority. Water losses occur in shared rivers, communal irrigation canals, and on-farm furrows and in irrigation fields.The agricultural sector accounts for in excess of 50% of water utilisation in South Africa

31、 and experience water losses of between 30 and 40%. Clearly, therefore, the efforts and resources of water conservation and demand management measures should feature. Irrigation losses are often quite significant and it is estimated that less than 60% of water abstracted from water resources is correctly placed