经济学基础第二篇文档格式.docx

1、微观经济学关注的主要问题之一是解释这种疯狂的购买行为。是什么驱使我们到百货公司、杂货商店和各种大型的商场呢？更确切来说：我们是如何决定自己购买的任何一种商品的数量的？产品的价格变化如何影响我们购买商品的数量或我们花钱的量？除了价格以为，还有什么因素影响我们的消费决策？The specifics of consumer demand are also important to public policy decisions.消费者需求的特性对于公共决策来说也是很重要的。消费模式 Patterns of ConsumptionA good way to start a study of consu

2、mer demand is to obsere how consumers spend their incomes.需求的决定因素 Determinants of DemandThe Sociopsychiatric Explanation 社会精神病学的解释From a Freudian perspective, we strive fo r ever higher levels of consuption to satisfy basic drives for security, sex ,and ego gratification. In freuds view. It is the c

3、onstant interplay of id, ego ,and superego drives that motivates us to buy ,buy ,buy.佛洛依德认为，我们不断地争取更高水平的消费是为了满足我们对于安全、性和自我价值的追求，如同人的本性，我们以能表现自己身份和价值的方式来穿着和装饰。佛洛依德的观点看来，本我、自我和超我之间持续的相互影响激发我们不断地购买、购买再购买。Sociologists offer additonal explanations for our consumption behavior,They emphasize our yearning

4、to stand above the crowed, to receive recognition from the masses.Thus we strive for ever higher levels of consumptionso as to surpass the Joneses,not just to keep up with them.社会学家为我们的消费行为提供了另外的解释。他们强调了我们对于自己能在人群中出类拔萃和得到众人赏识的向往。因此，我们要不断地争取跟高的消费水平使自己能够超越与自己社会地位相当的人，而不仅仅和他们保持一致。The Economic Explanati

5、on 经济学的解释Prices and income are just as relevant to consumption decisions as are more basi desires and preferences.价格和收入与更基本的渴望和偏好一样都与消费决策有关。效用不是使用价值，使用价值是客观的，而效用则纯然是主观的，它因人、因地、因时而异。As we observed in chapter 3, the market demand for a good is simply the sum of all individual consumer demands. Hence t

6、he market demand for a specific product is determined by Tastes（desire for this and other goods）Income （of consumers）Expectations（ for income, prices, tastes）Other goods （their availability and price）The number of consumers in the market某特定商品的市场需求由以下因素决定：偏好（对这种或其他商品的渴望）收入（消费者的收入）预期（对收入、价格、偏好而言）其他商品（

7、他们的可得性及价格）市场中的消费者数量需求曲线 The Demand CurveUtility Theory 效用原理Total vs. Marginal Utility Economists use the term utility to refer to the expected pleasure, or satisfaction,obtained from goods and services. Total utility refers to the amount of satisfaction obtained from your enire consumption of a prod

8、uct. By contrast, marginal utility refers to the amount of satisfaction you get from consuming the last（i.e marginal）unit of a product.效用 从某种商品或服务中获得的满足感所带来的快乐总效用 从某种商品的全部消费中获得的满足的量边际效用 从某种商品或服务的追加的一单位消费中所获得的满足。The behavior of popcorn connoisseurs is not that unusual. Generally speaking, the amount

9、of additional utility we obtain from a product declines as we continue to consume larger quantities of it .Indeed, thisi phenomenon of diminishing marginal utility is so nearly universal that economists have fashioned a law around it . This law of diminishing marginal utility states that each succes

10、sive unit of a good consumed yields less additional utility.一般说来，当我们持续消费一种商品时，我们从这种商品中获得的附加效用的量是下降的。实际上，边际效用递减的这种现象非常普遍，以至于经济学家针对这一现象提出了一个规律：随着我们对某商品消费量的增加，每一单位商品所产生的额外效用递减。Do not confuse diminishing marginal utility with dislike.Its marginal utility is positive ,and there fore total utility rises w

11、hen the second boxi is consumed. So long as marginal utility is positive, total utility must be increasing.不要将不喜欢与边际效用递减的概念相混淆。它的边际效用是正的，并且，当吃完第二包以后，总效用是增加的。只要边际效用是正的，总效用就一定增加。Not all goods approach zero （much less nagative ）marginal utility. Yet the more genreal priciple of diminishing marginal uti

12、lity is experienced daily. That is to say, additonal quantities of a good eventually yield increasingly smaller increments of satisfaction. Total utility continues to rise ,but at an ever slower rate as more of a good is consumed. There are exceptions to the law of diminishing marginal utility, but

13、not many.不断增加的商品数量最终将使满足感的增量变小。Price and Quantity 价格与数量In deciding whether to buy something, our immediate focus is typically on a single variable,namely price.With given income, taste ,expectations ,and prices of other goods and services, people are willing to buy additional quantities of a good on

14、ly if its pricefalls.假设消费者的收入、偏好和预期以及其他商品和服务的就价格不变，那么只有当一种商品的价格下降时，消费者才愿意购买更多的数量。Price Elasticity 价格弹性The central question in all these decisions is the response of quantity demaned o a change in price. The response of consumers to a change in price is measured by the price elasticity of demand. Spe

15、cifically, the price elasticity of demand refers to the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price -that is Price elasticity（E）= percentage change in quantity demanded/percentage change in price所有这些决策的核心问题是需求量对价格变化的反应。消费者对价格变化的反应用需求的价格弹性来衡量。具体来说，需求的价格弹性（price el

16、asticity of demand）是由需求量变化的百分比除以价格变化的百分比得来的。弹性不是斜率，如一条直线，个点斜率相同，但弹性则不是。因为弹性还与坐标有关。Elastic vs. Inelastic Demand 需求富有弹性和缺乏弹性If demand is inelastic, consumers arent very responsive to price changes.如果需求缺乏弹性，消费者对于价格的变化就不十分敏感。Price Elasticity and Total Revenue 价格弹性和总收益The total revenue of a seller is the

17、 amount of money received from product sales. It is determined by the quantity of the product sold and the price at which it is sold.总收益 在给定时期，产品的价格乘以销售量 ，即p乘以q.总收益就是毛收入，而不是利润Effect of a Price CutA price cut reduces total revenue if demand is nelastic（EA price cut does not change total revenue if de

18、mand is unitary elastic如果需求缺乏价格弹性，降价会减少总收益如果需求富有价格弹性，降价会增加总收益如果需求具有单位价格弹性，降价不会引起总收益的变化Determinants of Elasticity 弹性的决定因素Necessities vs. LuxuriesConsumption of nessities much when the price increases; demand for necessities is relatively inelastic.Thus demand for luxury goods is relatively elastic.必需

19、品的需求相对缺乏价格弹性奢侈品的需求相对富有价格弹性Availability of SubstitutesIn general, the greater the availability of substitutes, the higher the price elasticity of demand.替代品的可得性 一般说来，一种商品的替代品的可得性越大，这种商品的需求价格弹性就越大。Relative Price Caveat Empotor:the role of advertising买者注意：广告的角色Advertising seeks to increase our taste fo

20、r a particular product. If our taste （the products perceived marginal utility）increases,so will our willingness to buy. The resulting change in demand is reflected in a rightward shift of the demand curve,often accompanied by diminished elasticity.广告试图增加我们对于某种商品过的偏好，如果我们的偏好（商品的边际效用）增加了，我们的购买意愿也将增加。需

21、求改变的结果反映为需求曲线的向右移动，并常常伴随着弹性的下降。Are wants created?Advertising does encourage specific outlets for satisfying those needs.A successful advertising campaign is one that shifts the demand curve for a product to the right,inducing consumers to increase their purchases of a product at every price.一个成功的广告使

22、产品的需求曲线向右移动，使消费者在所有的价格水平上都提高了消费量。广告还能够提高消费者对品牌的忠诚度，使得需求曲线的价格弹性降低。从而使得在产品提价是消费量的变化不大。第五章 供给决策Supply DecisionsThe questions of how much can be produced is largely an engineering and managerial proble.The question of how much should be produced is an economic issue. If costs escalate as capacity is app

23、roached, it might make sense to produce less than capacity output. In some situations, the costs of production might even be so high that it doesnt make sense to produce any putput from avilable facilities. The end result will be a supply decision, that is ,an expressed ability and willingness to pr

24、oduce a good at various prices.能够生产多少产出的问题很大程度上是一个工程学和管理学的问题。应该生产多少产出则是一个经济学问题。如果成本圹大到一定程度，就应该降低产出。甚至在某些情况下，可能由于生产成本过高，利用可用设备进行任何生产都没有意义。为解决上述问题，最终将引入供给决策，即表明不同价格水平下生产某产品的能力和意愿。Capacity Constraints:The Production Function产能约束：生产函数What is the maximum amount of output attainable from a given quantity

25、of input resources生产函数表示的是投入组合与最大产出量之间的关系，但它并不能说明应该不应该生产某种产品。These limits to the production of any good are reflected in the production function. The production function tells us the maximum amout of good X producible from various combinantions of factor inputs.生产函数（production function）反映了对任何产品生产上的限

26、制。生产函数告诉我们不同要素投入组合所能带来的X产品的最大产出。A production function is a technological summary of our ability to produce a particular good.生产函数是对我们生产某种特定产品的能力的技术性概括。The purpose of a production function is to tell us ust how much output we can produce with varying amounts of factor inputs.生产函数的目的正是要告诉我们，利用不同数量的要素投

27、入所能生产的最大产出。Efficiency 效率Capacity 生产能力Land and capital constraints place a ceiling on potential output.尽管生产函数强调了产出如何随着工人数量的增加而增加，但这种增加却不是无止境的。劳动力并不是生产牛仔裤所需的唯一要素。我们还需要资本。如果我们持续雇佣工人，将很快耗尽空间和可用设备，土地和资本的约束设定了潜在产出的上限。Marginal Physical Product 边际物质产品The contribution of each worker to production is measured

28、 by the change in total output that occurs when the worker is employed. The name for this concept is marginal physical product （MPP） and is measured as.边际物质产品（MPP） 额外单位投入所引起的总产出的变化量。In other words, a workers productivity（MPP） depands in part on the amount of other resources in the production process

29、.工人的生产率（MPP）部分地取决于生产过程中其他资料的数量。Law of Diminishing Returns 收益递减规律Resource Constraints 资源约束The relative scarcity of other inputs （capital and land）constrains the marginal physical product of labor 其他投入（资本和土地）的相对稀缺性限制了劳动力和边际物质产品。Nagative MPPYet, as more labor is hired, each unit of labor has less capital and land to work with .This is simple division: the available facilities are bing shared by more and more workers. At some point, this constraint begins to pinch . When it