语言学总结 2.docx

1、语言学总结 2第1章语言学导论常考的定义1、语言的定义：a. human speech b. the ability to communicate by human speechc. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelingsd. the written representation of such a system2、Design feat

2、ures (定义)：the feature that define our language can be called design feature.3、语言的区别性特征（Design features ）Arbitrariness（任意性）：Arbitrariness means that the forms of linguistic sings bear no natural relationship to their meaning.例子，在课本第4页Duality (多重性）：参考书第21页Creativity (创造性）：language is resourceful becau

3、se of its duality and its recursiveness.Displacement（移位性）：参考书第21页4、语言的功能Informative(informational ideational referential)信息功能：convey message and information Interpersonal(人际功能）例子：称呼（dear sir、Jonny）能够表明人的身份和立场，口音，方言For example, the chanting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slo

4、gans at public meetings, the stage-managed audience reactions to TV game shows They all signal who we are and where we belong. Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; Performative(施为功能）：说话就是做事，可改变状态。（抱怨、请求、禁止）都是施为功能。常见的例子：结婚仪式、对囚徒的宣判、婴儿的洗礼、船只初次下水前的命名以及对敌人的诅咒。 F

5、or example, I now declare the meeting open. I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. Emotive（情感功能）：to express attitudes, feelings and emotions.能够左右听众的情绪。常见的例子：诅咒，说脏话，对艺术或美景发出的不自觉的感叹。God, My, Damn it,What a sight, Wow, Oh.!Phatic (寒暄功能）：refers to the social interaction 例子：“早上好”，“上帝保佑你”，“天气不错”。俚语、笑

6、话、行语、礼节性相互问候。Recreation（娱乐功能）：例子：婴儿的牙牙学语、赞美诗者的吟唱，对歌Metalingual (元语言功能）用语言描述语言Interrogative（疑问功能）：带有？的句子4、Linguistics(言语）The scientific study of human languageLinguistics is a rich and exciting field. It is an area with immense research potential and a scholarly “industry”. Linguistics now has a set

7、of established theories, methods and sub-branches. 5、语言学的主要分类phonetics(语音学）：Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc

8、.phonology(音系学）：Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Phoneme(音位）：phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that signal a difference in meaning).morphology（形态学）：It studies the minimal units of meaning-morp

9、hemes and word-formation processes).syntax（句法学）：syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics (语义学）examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word a

10、nd above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.semantic componentsdenotation of wordssense relations between words such as antonymy and synonymysense relations between sentences such as entailment and presupposition and others.Pragmatics(语用学）is the study of meaning in context. It deals with pa

11、rticular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way languag

12、e is internally structured.psycholinguistics(心理语言学）sociolinguistics(社会语言学）anthropological(人类语言学）-宏观语言学语言学的一些重要区分1、描写与规定（descriptive vs. Prescriptive)Dont say X.(不要说X）-prescriptive规定性People do not say X.(人们不说X）-descriptive 描写2、共时与历时（synchronic vs. diachronic)参考书第19页共时描写（synchronic description)把某一固定时间

13、作为它的观察点。例子：现代希腊语语法 莎士比亚英语结构历时描写（diachronic description)研究语言的历史变化。例子：Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.3、语言与言语（langue vs. Parole)Saussure(索绪尔）区分了langue and parole. Chomsky(乔姆斯基）区分了语言能力（competence）和语言运用（performance)Langue refers to the linguistics competence of the speakerParole refers to

14、the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.Competence (语言能力）refers to the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. This means a persons ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. It also includes a persons knowledge of what are sentences

15、 of a particular language. Chomsky made a distinction between competence and performance, which is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing.Performance（语言运用）refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.注意：习题看老师ppt 后的课题，以及参考书的题。第2章语音speech sound1、常见的定义解释1、phon

16、etics(语音学）：studies how speech sounds are produced ,transmitted, and perceived.2、Voiceless(清音）：when the vocal folds are apart ,the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless.3、Voiced (浊音）：when the vocal folds are close together ,the airstream causes them to vibrate aga

17、inst each other and the resultant sound is said to be voiced.二、语音研究的方向发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics） is the study of the production of speech sounds.声学语音学（Acoustic Phonetics） is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.听觉语音学（Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics） is concerned with the percept

18、ion of speech sounds.三、国际音标1、1897年国际语音协会（International phonetics association)建立2、1888年第一版国际音标问世，2005最新版。The latest version was revised in 1993 and updated twice in 1996 and 2005。四、Consonants（辅音）和 Vowel（元音）1、定义：Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so mar

19、ked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.Vowel is produced without obstruction of the air so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.1、区别：The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.2、Consonants参考书第32页In the

20、 production of consonants at least two articulators are involved.辅音的分类：发音部位（place of articulation）The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Bilabial (双唇音)：p b m w Labiodental (唇齿音): f v Dental (齿音): Alveolar (齿龈音):d t n l s z Postalveolar(后齿龈音): t dPalatal(腭音):英语中只有一个腭

21、音：jVelar(软腭音): k g x Glottal(声门音):h发音方式(manner of articulation) The manner of articulation refers to the ways in which articulation can be accomplished.Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音):p,b,t,d,k,g Fricative(擦音):f,v, ,s, z,hApproximant(通音):w, r, j Nasal(鼻音）：m n Lateral(边音): l affricative(塞檫音):d t清辅音：p、t、k、f、s、W

22、、t、ts、tr，再加上r、h，合计12个。浊辅音：b、d、g、v、z、T、dv、dz、dr再加 上m、n、N、l、j、w合计16个。3、Vowel Vowel glides（元音音渡）: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality Diphthong(双元音）：a single movement of tongue Triphthong(三元音）：a double movement of tongue元音的分类1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)2) the position

23、 of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)/i:/ high fronttenseunrounded/ highfrontlaxunrounded/e/ middle frontlaxunrounded/ low frontlaxunrounded/ :/ middle central tenseunr

24、ounded/ middlecentrallaxunrounded/ / lowcentrallaxunrounded/U:/ high backtenserounded/ highbacklaxrounded/:/ middle backtenserounded/ lowbacklaxrounded/:/ lowbacktenseunrounded4、音系学（phonology) 参考书第39页Phonology：phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.Phonology is n

25、ot specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system. Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations. 1、speech(语言）：Speech

26、 is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. 2、Coarticulation(协同发音）：Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment

27、to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.3、Anticipatory coarticolation(逆协同发音）：前面的字母受后面字母的影响If the sound becomes more like the follo

28、wing sound (lamb), it is known as anticipatory coarticulation .例子：lamb can (字母 a 收到m n 的影响）4、Perseverative coarticulation (重复性协同发音)后协同发音：If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound (map), it is perseverative coarticulation.例子：map speak 5、Broad transcription(宽式音标）When we use a simple s

29、et of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. narrow transcription(窄式音标）The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.5、标音1、Phoneme音位(音位学单位）：the smallest unit of sound in the language which can distinguish two words.2

30、、Phone音素（语音学单位）：individual sounds as they occur in speech. A phone is a phonetic unit.3、Allophone:音位变体any of the different forms of a phonemep, ph are two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution. (互补分布）例/音位有三个变体：(1)/a/ (2)/ (3)/A/p, ph are two different phones an

31、d are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context.4、Phone 和phoneme的区别phone 是语音学的最小单位，phonemes是音位学的最小单位phone音素-语言的自然属性-可描述所有的语言 用 标音Phoneme音位-语言的社会属性-只能是某种语言的音位 用 / /标音phone 是具体的 phoneme抽象的出现在speech中的是音素phonePhoneme 音位相当于数学中的集合Phone 音素相当于数学中的元素5、Minimal pair:(最小对立体):Pho