语言学导论语言学教程修订版胡壮麟.docx

1、语言学导论语言学教程修订版胡壮麟An Introduction to Linguistics 语言学导论胡壮麟主编语言学教程（修订版）：大学2001年Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsLI Why study language?Languages are the best mirror of the human mind 一Leibniz(莱布尼兹 1646-1716) psychology mind/brain pedagogy cognitive scienceThe three basic questions that concern Chomsky

2、 are:(i)What constitutes knowledge of language?(ii)How is knowledge of language acquired?(iii)How is knowledge of language put to use?1.2What is language?Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. 一 Sap

3、ir (萨丕尔 1884-1939)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Wardhaugh (沃道)A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length andconstructed out of a finite set of elements. 一 Chomsky (乔姆斯基 1928 -)A language is a system for meanings. 一 Hall

4、iday (礼德 1925 -)We shall define language as meaning potential: that is, as sets of options, or alternatives, in meaning, that are available to the speaker-hearer. 一 Halliday1.3Design features of languageDesign features Concept introduced by C. F Hockett in the 1960sof a set of key properties of lang

5、uage not shared or not known to be shared, as a set, with systems of communication in any other species Their number and names vary from one account to another; but all include, as among the most important, the properties of duality, arbitrariness, and productivity131 Arbitrariness 任意性：The property

6、of language by which there is in general no natural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning 书 book livre rose motivated 理据 sheep cow moo moo quack oink bedroomWhnt，s in a name? that which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet. 一 Shakespecne(莎士

7、比亚 1564-1616)名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。-荀子正 名1.3.2Duality 二重性 Language consists of two levels of structures The lower(secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds, such as 力,亠,(,O, R, - which combine to form meaningful units (morphemes, words,such as he. left) which constitute a higher

8、(primary) level, a: p k pa:k park ka:p carp1.3.3Creativity 仓U造性 Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before1.3.4Displacement 移位性 By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time

9、and space) at the moment of communicatio n.Dai (1989): 1 .creativity, 2.arbitrariness, 3.duality, 4.displacement, 5.cultural transmissionHu (1988): 1 .arbitrabiness 2.duality 3.productivity 4.displacement 5.cultural transmission6.interchangabilityHu (2001): 1. arbitrariness 2.duality 3.productivity

10、4.displacementWang (1988): 1.双层性2.能产性3.任意性4.互易性5.专用性6.不受环境限制7 传授性L4 Origin of language speculative and controversial1.5Functions of language1.5.1Informative 信。总、功直E Language serves an informative function when itis used to express the speaker opinion, to state a fact, or to reason things out. (alter

11、natively termed ideational function in Hallidayan framework)1.5.2Interpersonal function 人际功能 Language serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.1.5.3Performative 彳亍事功直吉 Language can be used to do things, to perform action. e.g. UI surrender.“Til do it tonight. I declare the me

12、eting open. “ I sentence you to three years ill prison.1.5.4Emotive function 感情功能 The use of language to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker, e.g. Ouch!”, “Im tembly sony about (alternatively called expressive function)1.5.5Phatic communion 寒暄交i炎 The use of language to establish or main

13、tain a comfortable social contact between people without involving any factual content. E.g. greetings, farewells, and talking about the weather.1.5.6Recreational function 娱 乐功能 The use of language for the sheer joy of using it. E.g. singing, poetry writing1.5.7Metalingual function 元语言功能 The use of

14、language to make statements about language itself. The language about which they are made is called the object language E.g. a Chinese grammar of English; to say that book is pronounced /$U / is to make a metalinguistic statement about that wordLanguage A (obj): English park carp Language B (tool):

15、Chinese, English Quirk et al. 1985 pa:k ka:pMetaphysics metaphysics metachemistry metascience 科学学 science1.5.8Poetic (Function of language) defined by Jakobson in terms of orientation towards, or focus on, uthe message for its own saken Thus, in ordinaiy speech, it is by virtue of the poetic functio

16、n that e.g. in coordination, one will tend to put shorter phrase first: I remember especially the wine and the view from the terrace, rather than, although in terms of other functions they are equivalent，.the view from the terrace and the wine.Hu (1988): 1 .phatic 2.directive 3.informative 4.interro

17、gative 5.expressive6.evocative7.performative (BTW, Dai 1989 makes no mention of language functions.)Hu (2001:10-16): 1.informative 2.interpersonal 3.performative 4.emotive 5.phatic6.recreational 7.metalingualHu (2001:151-152): Karl Buhler tiipartite classification: 1 .representative2.expressive3.app

18、elative (vocative) Roman Jakobsons six-function classification:1 .referential2.emotive 3.conative 4.metalinguistic 5.poetic 6.phatic Halliday： p.415 seven fimetions in children，s language: 1 .instrumental 2.regulatory3.interactional 4.personal 5. heuristic 6. imaginative 7.informative three metafiui

19、ctions in adulf s language: 1 .ideational2.interpersonal 3.textualWang (1988:11-13):语言是1.交际的工具2.认知世界的工具3.艺术创作的工 具Chomsky (1979:88): Language serves essentially for the expression of thought.Chomsky (1980:230): We must reject the view that the purpose of language iscommunication. (C disagrees that th

20、e sole purpose of lang is communication.)1.6What is linguistics? The scientific study of languageparameter what and why observatory adequacy, descriptive adequacy, explanatory adequacy Mandarin1.7Microlinguistics1.7.1Phonetics 语音学 The study of the nature, production, and perception of sounds of spee

21、ch, in abstraction from the phonology of any specific language Variously divided into acoustic phonetics, articulatory phonetics, and auditory phonetics. (The branch of linguistics which studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification,

22、 and transcription. Cf. transcript1.7.2Phonology 音系学 The study of the sound systems of individual languages and of the nature of such systems generaily. (Phonology identifies the set of speech sounds for each language, how they are arranged to form meaningful units, and the function of each sound Ph

23、onology reveals what the possible combinations of sounds in a language are and explains why certain words take the form they do.)1.7.3Morphology 形态学 Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words It studies the minimal units of meaning 一 morphemes and word-formation processes1.7.4Sy

24、ntax 句法学 The branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences1.7.5Semantics 语义学 The study of meaning. Seen by Breal, in the late 19lh century, as an emerging science (French semantique) opposed to phonetics (phonetique) as a science of sounds(Matthews99

25、7)1.7.6Pragmatics 语用学 The study of the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts1.8Macrolinguistics1.8.1Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 Any study of language in or from the viewpoint of psychology. Applied since the 1960s to two main fields: the empirical study of the development of language in ch

26、ildren (developmental psycholinguistics); and the investigation through experiments of the psychological mechanisms for the production and understanding of speech (experimental psycholinguistics)1.&2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 Any study of language in relation to society, including the social functions

27、of language and the social characteristics of its users For example, Labov studies the correlations between linguistic variables (e.g. the precise phonetic quality of a vowel, or the absence of a certain element in a construction) and non-linguistics variables such as the social class of speakers, t

28、heir age, sex, etc.1.8.3ArHliropological linguistics 人类语言学 It uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. e.g. the study of lesser-known languages through field work; emergence of language; ancest

29、ral language1.&4 Computational linguistics i I算语言学 The use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as natural language, to distinguish it from computer languages). E.g. machine translation, speech synthesis1.9Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1Descriptive vs. prescriptiv

30、e 描写 vs规定 A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyzes linguistic facts observed; it is prescriptive if it lays down Riles for grammatical correctness Its me Who did you speak to? I haven 7 done nothing.呆 板1.9.2Synchronic vs. diachronic 共口寸 vs.历日寸 The study of language as its exist

31、s at a particular point in time is synchronic. E.g. A Grammar of Ancient Chinese; The study of language as it changes through time is diachronic E.g. From Old English to Standard English. Sars figure skating synchronized swimming1.9.3Langue vs. parole 语言 vs言语 A distinction made by the Swiss linguist

32、 Ferdinand de Saussure(索绪尔 1857-1913). Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue. As a social product, langue is a set of convention that members of a speech community abide by. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language. Parole is the concrete use of the conventions or applications of the rules.i.Lcingne