语言学A4开卷资料.docx

1、语言学A4开卷资料Chapter2.Phonetics: the scientific study of speech and is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds. studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and received. Speech chain: the production/transmission/reception of the message. Phonology: the

2、study of the sound patterns in human language, studies and describes the distinctive sound units of a language and their relationship to one another. Aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Distinctio

3、n : meaningArticulatory phonetics发音:speakers production(how sounds are produced)Acoustic声学: transmissions medium(sound waves, physical characteristics of speech sound)Auditory听觉: receivers reception(the perception of speech) Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns a

4、nd how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Distinction: meaning. Vocal organs: lungs,trachea,larynx,pharyngeal,and oral cavities and the nasal cavity.vocal tractPhonetics:voiceless vs. voiced. vocal folds are either vibrating or not.Description of Consonants Three st

5、eps: - voiced or voiceless- place of articulation- manner of articulation. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.no obstruction of air in the production of vowel Monophthongs:i:, :, u:, :, : -long voweli, , , e, , , u -short vowelDiphthongs:ei, ai, i, , u

6、, i, au, u Triphthongs:ai, au, i u, ei= “chit-chat”/ “flip-flop” never seem to occur in the reverse order（i.e. chat-chit, flop-flip）. Why?-In the ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a high vowel and the reduplicated ablaut variant of the vowel is a low vowel. There is also a tend

7、ency for the first vowel to be front and the second vowel to be back. Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. All the speech sounds we produce are phones. Take the sounds in the following words for example: feel, leaf, top, stop f i: l s t. Phoneme(音位):the minimum/smallest phonemic unit that i

8、s not further analyzable into smaller units. A block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts. Distinctive sounds. Phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. E.g. beat vs. seat, pig vs. peg, /p/ /b/ /. A

9、llophone(音素变位): phonetic variants of a phoneme. Phonemes are abstract units and cannot be read out. Its realization in certain phonetic environments results in allophones, variants of the phoneme. tth, k - pin phin vs. stop stp- cape kheip vs. kick khik- bad bd vs. bed bed phonemic transcriptions音标/

10、phonetic transcriptionsMinimal Pairs :If two words are identical in form except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string. i.e. fine/vine; crick/creek, bowl/dole; lobe/load; thigh/thy Minimal set: beat, bit, bait, bet, bat, bite Free variation:不同方言的语音Distinctive feature: a fe

11、ature which distinguishes one phoneme from another. A form of a binary opposition. Present+ absent- /k/ /g/-voiced/+voiced/,/n/l/+nasal/-nasal/,/i/u/+front/-rounded/,/-front/+rounded/i/, /e/+high/, /-high/,/:/+front/, /-front/,/s/f/+sibilant/-sibilant/齿擦音 Complementary Distribution(互补成分): If two or

12、more sounds never occur in the same phonological context/in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are in complementary distribution. 1.Allophones of one phoneme: aspirated送气音phthkh (pill, till, kill) and unaspirated stops ptk(spill, still, skill)(浊化)2. The velar nasal and the glottal gl

13、ide hseparate phonemes. The sounds in CD must be phonetically similar to each other for them to be regarded as allophones of one and the same phoneme.Sequential Constraints: churchchurches, oozeoozes,kisskisses, but deathdeaths, cloth-clothes Sibilants s z are not allowed to be followed by another s

14、ibilant, but and arent sibilants (齿擦音). Homorganic Consonants: im-possible, im-moral, but in-decisive, in-tangible The phoneme following the negative prefix (im or in) must have the same place of articulation with n or m.This constraint leads to assimilation (同化) 在in-discrete中，n发成n在in-conceivable中，n

15、发成在in-put中，n发成m Suprasegmental features超切分特征: non-segmental phonemic features thatoccur above the level of the segments. Syllable=onset+peak+coda no coda: unchecked or open. Barba:, keyki:; syllable core: peak and coda. Zero onset: amam,easei:z sixths-4 consonants of a Coda. Onset restrictions: thre

16、e-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition, s-voiceless stop-a liquid/l/r/;if s-t-,then-r. Word Stress: relatively greater force exerted in the articulation of part of an utterance. It is a conventional label for the overall prominence of certain syllables relative to others withi

17、n a linguistic system. It represents the total effect of factors such as pitch, loudness, and duration. Primary stress-only one. Secondary stress.The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: import; increase; Comp

18、ounds have initial stress while adj. nouns stress the noun, eg. hotdog/hot dog White House/white house Sentence Stress-nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjun

19、ctions are usually not stressed. Pitch:音调 a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. The perceived frequency of a sound wave, determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds. Declination降调 Intonation语调: the pitch differences that exten

20、d over phonetic units larger than the syllable. When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. falling/rising. Functions: grouping of words/emphasizing words/differentiating meanings Tone声调: pitch variations. simp

21、le Register tone languages (predominately in Africa) have level tones /contour tones (Mandarin Cantonese Vietnamese) Chapter3. Morphology and LexiconMorphololgy: studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. Lexicon: refers to the set of all the words and id

22、ioms of any language. Word: a sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocal equipment; symbolic, i.e. stands for something else, such as objects, happenings, or ideasarbitrary, exceptions: onomatopoetic/echoic words(bang,cuckoo); part of the large communication system we

23、 call language; help human beings interact culturally with one another connotations. Word Classification: 1.closed: -cannot add new words prep., pron.(personal/possessive/reflexive/demonstrativethis,that,these,those),Determiner(a,an,the,that,this,every,all,some,both,half,whole,any), conjunctions., M

24、odal verbs., Relative., Auxiliary v.助动词,linking v., pro-forms(do, do so, not, so) Open: can add new words: n., full/notional v.monotransitive/bitransitive/intransitive, adj., adv.(不包括连接副词) 2.Lexical/context-open Grammatical/functional-closed 3.Lesser categories: Numerals-cardinal/ordinal-lexical, In

25、terjections感叹语-grammatical, words of unique function: negative particle-not, infinitive-to. 4. Variability: variable words: inflectional ending(曲折变化的)n./gradable adj./v/adv, invariable: dont have IE. Morpheme语素、形态素: the smallest linguistic unit/the most basic element of meaning in language that carr

26、ies grammatical and/or semantic meaning./ This means that it cannot be further divided into smaller grammatical units. Unacceptable-un,accept,able Work-1, chairman-2,boys-2,sleeping-2 Types of morphemes: Free/bound: Free-constitute a word by itself, (Mono-morphemic, Poly-morphemicpoundswords consist

27、 of free morphemes only,2. Free+Bound) Bound-has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme. BOUND分为Derivational(改变词义dis-,un-,multi-,micro-/词性en-,-full,-ment)creates an entirely new word, prefix/suffix和Inflecitonal(改变语法含义 时态-ed,-ing,性，单复数-s,比较级最高级,s)provides further grammatical infor

28、mation about an existing lexical itemsuffix. Affix词缀prefix,suffix,infix. Stem-the morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix is added. 1.a free morpheme- Boys,boyhood,boyish the stem boy is equivalent to a root. 2. 2 or more free morphemes boy-scout or one free morpheme plus one or more

29、affixes (boyish in boyishly)equivalent to a base. 判断词素个数：Personification:3 soft-hearted-3, inspiring-2, geography-2, internationally-4, forgotten-2, spoke-1, spoken-2, predominant-2. 判断I/D:skiing-IA&DA,depart-DA,highest-IA,Janes-IA. Allomorph（变位）: the different variants of a morpheme conditioned by

30、position or adjoining sounds. Features: the various shapes or forms of the same morpheme, has the same meaning, but has different phonological forms. E.g. pl. mapss, dogsz,watchesiz,mouse-miceai,ox-oxen, tooth-teeth, sheep-sheep. In- 变体im-,ir,il. ion变-ation,tion,sion, a和an,. Typesphonologically/morp

31、hologically conditioned pho-: e.g. ed 发/id/,/t/,/d/; mor-: e.g. 不规则复数/过去式过去分词 Word Formation: compounding-compound wordsSunday,fifteen; derivation派生anti-,de-,dis-,non-,-ness,-ics,-able/ible; conversion转换-zero derivation- 词性转换n.-v.,v.-n.,adj./adv.-v.,adj.-n.；abbreviationclipping(omnibus-bus);initials(UN) and acronyms(UNESCO);blending(smog=smoke+fog,motel=motor+hotel,hi-tech,Eurosia); back formation(cosy-cose,television-televise); neologism造词（science and technology,industry,politics）; borrowing. Lexicon词汇学 a collective word, having the same meaning wi