语言学A4开卷资料.docx

语言学A4开卷资料.docx

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语言学A4开卷资料

Chapter2.Phonetics:

thescientificstudyofspeechandisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds.studiesallspeechsoundsinhumanlanguages:

howtheyareproduced,transmittedandreceived.Speechchain:

theproduction/transmission/receptionofthemessage.

Phonology:

thestudyofthesoundpatternsinhumanlanguage,studiesanddescribesthedistinctivesoundunitsofalanguageandtheirrelationshiptooneanother.Aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Distinction:

meaning

Articulatoryphonetics发音:

speaker’sproduction（howsoundsareproduced）Acoustic声学:

transmission’smedium（soundwaves,physicalcharacteristicsofspeechsound）Auditory听觉:

receiver’sreception（theperceptionofspeech）Phonology:

aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Distinction:

meaning.Vocalorgans:

lungs,trachea,larynx,pharyngeal,andoralcavitiesandthenasalcavity.vocaltract

Phonetics:

voicelessvs.voiced.vocalfoldsareeithervibratingornot.

DescriptionofConsonantsThreesteps:

--voicedorvoiceless--placeofarticulation--mannerofarticulation.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.

noobstructionofairintheproductionofvowel

Monophthongs:

[i:

],[ɔ:

],[u:

],[ə:

],[ɑ:

]--longvowel

[i],[ɔ],[ʌ],[e],[æ],[ə],[u]--shortvowel

Diphthongs:

[ei],[ai],[ɔi],[ɛə],[uə],[iə],[au],[əu]

Triphthongs:

[aiə],[auə],[ɔiə]

[əuə],[eiə=ɛə]

“chit-chat”/“flip-flop”neverseemtooccurinthereverseorder（i.e.chat-chit,flop-flip）.

Why?

-Intheablautreduplications,thefirstvowelisalmostalwaysahighvowelandthereduplicatedablautvariantofthevowelisalowvowel.Thereisalsoatendencyforthefirstvoweltobefrontandthesecondvoweltobeback.Phone:

Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Allthespeechsoundsweproducearephones.Takethesoundsinthefollowingwordsforexample:

feel,leaf,top,stop—[f][i:

][l][s][t].

Phoneme（音位）:

theminimum/smallestphonemicunitthatisnotfurtheranalyzableintosmallerunits.Ablockthatcannotbebrokendownintosmallerparts.Distinctivesounds.Phonologicalandabstractunit,aunitofdistinctivevalue;thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.E.g.beatvs.seat,pigvs.peg,/p//b//θ/.

Allophone（音素变位）:

phoneticvariantsofaphoneme.Phonemesareabstractunitsandcannotbereadout.Itsrealizationincertainphoneticenvironmentsresultsinallophones,variantsofthephoneme.[t][th],[k]--pin[phin]vs.stop[stɔp]-cape[kheip]vs.kick[khik]--bad[b’æd]vs.bed[bed]phonemictranscriptions音标/phonetictranscriptions

MinimalPairs:

Iftwowordsareidenticalinformexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring.i.e.fine/vine;crick/creek,bowl/dole;lobe/load;thigh/thyMinimalset:

beat,bit,bait,bet,bat,biteFreevariation:

不同方言的语音Distinctivefeature:

afeaturewhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.Aformofabinaryopposition.Present[+]absent[-]/k//g//-voiced//+voiced/,

/n//l//+nasal//-nasal/,/i//u//+front//-rounded/,/-front//+rounded//i/,/e//+high/,/-high/,/æ//ɔ:

//+front/,/-front/,/s//f//+sibilant//-sibilant/齿擦音

ComplementaryDistribution（互补成分）:

Iftwoormoresoundsneveroccurinthesamephonologicalcontext/inanidenticalphonemiccontextorenvironment,theyareincomplementarydistribution.1.Allophonesofonephoneme:

aspirated送气音[ph][th][kh]（pill,till,kill）andunaspiratedstops[p][t][k]（spill,still,skill）（浊化）2.Thevelarnasal[ŋ]andtheglottalglide[h]—separatephonemes.ThesoundsinCDmustbephoneticallysimilartoeachotherforthemtoberegardedasallophonesofoneandthesamephoneme.

SequentialConstraints:

church—churches,ooze—oozes,kiss—kisses,butdeath—deaths,cloth--clothes

Sibilants[ʧ][ʤ][s][z][ʃ][ʒ]arenotallowedtobefollowedbyanothersibilant,but[θ]and[ð]aren’tsibilants（齿擦音）.HomorganicConsonants:

im-possible,im-moral,butin-decisive,in-tangible

Thephonemefollowingthenegativeprefix（imorin）musthavethesameplaceofarticulationwithnorm.Thisconstraintleadstoassimilation（同化）在in-discrete中，n发成[n]在in-conceivable中，n发成[ŋ]

在in-put中，n发成[m]

Suprasegmentalfeatures超切分特征:

non-segmentalphonemicfeaturesthat

occurabovethelevelofthesegments.Syllable=onset+peak+codanocoda:

uncheckedoropen.

Bar[ba:

],key[ki:

];syllablecore:

peakandcoda.Zeroonset:

am[am],ease[i:

z]sixths-4consonantsofa

Coda.Onsetrestrictions:

three-consonantonsetsarehighlyrestrictedintheircomposition,s-voicelessstop-aliquid/l//r/;ifs-t-,then-r.WordStress:

relativelygreaterforceexertedinthearticulationofpartofanutterance.Itisaconventionallabelfortheoverallprominenceofcertainsyllablesrelativetootherswithinalinguisticsystem.Itrepresentsthetotaleffectoffactorssuchaspitch,loudness,andduration.Primarystress-onlyone.Secondarystress.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:

import;increase;

Compoundshaveinitialstresswhileadj.nounsstressthenoun,eg.–hotdog/hotdogWhiteHouse/

whitehouseSentenceStress--nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numerals,anddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Pitch:

音调asuprasegmentalqualitywhichextendsoverindividualsegmentsandlongerstretchesofspeech.Theperceivedfrequencyofasoundwave,determinedbythefrequencyofvibrationofthevocalfolds.Declination降调Intonation语调:

thepitchdifferencesthatextendoverphoneticunitslargerthanthesyllable.Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.falling/rising.Functions:

groupingofwords/emphasizingwords/differentiatingmeaningsTone声调:

pitchvariations.simpleRegistertonelanguages（predominatelyinAfrica）haveleveltones/contourtones（MandarinCantoneseVietnamese）

Chapter3.MorphologyandLexicon

Morphololgy:

studiesmorphemesandtheirdifferentformsandthewaytheycombineinwordformation.Lexicon:

referstothesetofallthewordsandidiomsofanylanguage.Word:

asoundorcombinationofsoundswhichweproducevoluntarilywithourvocalequipment;symbolic,i.e.standsforsomethingelse,suchasobjects,happenings,orideas—arbitrary,exceptions:

onomatopoetic/echoicwords（bang,cuckoo）;partofthelargecommunicationsystemwecalllanguage;helphumanbeingsinteractculturallywithoneanother–connotations.

♦WordClassification:

1.closed:

--cannotaddnewwordsprep.,pron.（personal/possessive/reflexive/demonstrative—this,that,these,those）,

Determiner（a,an,the,that,this,every,all,some,both,half,whole,any）,conjunctions.,Modalverbs.,Relative.,Auxiliaryv.助动词,linkingv.,pro-forms（do,doso,not,so）Open:

canaddnewwords:

n.,full/notionalv.—monotransitive/bitransitive/intransitive,adj.,adv.（不包括连接副词）2.Lexical/context-openGrammatical/functional-closed3.Lessercategories:

Numerals-cardinal/ordinal-lexical,Interjections感叹语-grammatical,wordsofuniquefunction:

negativeparticle-not,infinitive-to.4.Variability:

variablewords:

inflectionalending（曲折变化的）—n./gradableadj./v/adv,invariable:

don’thaveIE.Morpheme语素、形态素:

thesmallestlinguisticunit/themostbasicelementofmeaninginlanguagethatcarriesgrammaticaland/orsemanticmeaning./Thismeansthatitcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallergrammaticalunits.Unacceptable-un,accept,ableWork-1,chairman-2,boys-2,sleeping-2Typesofmorphemes:

Free/bound:

Free-constituteawordbyitself,（Mono-morphemic,Poly-morphemic—pounds—wordsconsistoffreemorphemesonly,2.Free+Bound）Bound-hasmeaningonlywhenconnectedwithatleastanothermorpheme.BOUND分为Derivational（改变词义dis-,un-,multi-,micro-/词性en-,-full,-ment）—createsanentirelynewword,prefix/suffix和Inflecitonal（改变语法含义时态-ed,-ing,性，单复数-s,比较级最高级,’s）—providesfurthergrammaticalinformationaboutanexistinglexicalitem—suffix.

Affix词缀—prefix,suffix,infix.Stem-themorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixisadded.–1.afreemorpheme--Boys,boyhood,boyish—thestemboyisequivalenttoaroot.2.2ormorefreemorphemes–boy-scoutoronefreemorphemeplusoneormoreaffixes（boyishinboyishly）—equivalenttoabase.判断词素个数：

Personification:

3soft-hearted-3,inspiring-2,geography-2,internationally-4,forgotten-2,spoke-1,spoken-2,predominant-2.判断I/D:

skiing-IA&DA,depart-DA,highest-IA,Jane’s-IA.

Allomorph（变位）:

thedifferentvariantsofamorphemeconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsounds.–Features:

thevariousshapesorformsofthesamemorpheme,hasthesamemeaning,buthasdifferentphonologicalforms.E.g.pl.maps[s],dogs[z],watches[iz],mouse-mice[ai],ox-oxen,tooth-teeth,sheep-sheep.In-变体im-,ir,il.–ion变-ation,tion,sion,a和an,.Types—phonologically/morphologicallyconditioned~pho-:

e.g.–ed发/id/,/t/,/d/;mor-:

e.g.不规则复数/过去式过去分词

WordFormation:

compounding-compoundwords—Sunday,fifteen;derivation派生—anti-,de-,dis-,non-,-ness,-ics,-able/ible;conversion转换-zeroderivation-词性转换n.-v.,v.-n.,adj./adv.-v.,adj.-n.；abbreviation—clipping（omnibus-bus）;initials（UN）andacronyms（UNESCO）;blending（smog=smoke+fog,motel=motor+hotel,hi-tech,Eurosia）;backformation（cosy-cose,television-televise）;neologism造词（scienceandtechnology,industry,politics）;borrowing.

Lexicon词汇学acollectiveword,havingthesamemeaningwi