语言学课后题答案.docx

语言学课后题答案.docx

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语言学课后题答案

Blendingtheory:

Itisacognitiveoperationwherebyelementsoftwoormore“mentalspaces”areintegratedviaprojectionintoanew,blendedspacewhichhasitsuniquestructure.Theblendinheritspartialstructurefromtheinputspacesandhasemergentstructureofitsown.

Categorization:

Itistheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences,itisamajoringredientinthecreationofhumanknowledge,anditallowsustorelatepresentexperiencestopastones.

TheconceptualApproach：

Itisconcernedwiththepatternsinwhichandtheprocessesbywithconceptualcontentisorganizedinlanguage.Itaddresseshowlanguagestructuresconceptualcontent.

Cognition:

Thetermcognitionisusedindifferentwaysbydifferentdisciplines.Inpsychology,itreferstoaninformationprocessingviewofanindividual’spsychologicalfunctions.

CognitiveLinguistics：

Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceofthewordandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.

Construal:

Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaysthroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregation,etc.

ConstrualOperation:

Construaloperationsareconceptualizingprocessesusedinlanguageprocessesandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.

CycleSchema:

Itinvolvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludesthefollowing:

astartingpoint,aprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktracking,areturntotheinitialstate.

Deixis:

Deixisinvolveslinguisticformsthatpointatsomethingfromthespeechsituation.Incognitiveterms,deixisistheuseofelementsofsubject’ssituatednesstodesignatesomethinginthescene.

TheFormalApproach:

Itbasicallyaddressesthestructuralpatternsexhibitedbytheovertaspectoflinguisticforms,largelyabstractedawayfromorregardedasautonomousfromanyassociatedmeaning.Thisapproachincludesthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.

ForceSchema:

Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.Itincludesthefollowingelements:

asourceandtargetoftheforce,adirectionandintensityoftheforce,apathofmotionofthesourceandtarget,asequenceofcausation.

ImageSchema：

Imageschemaisarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.

Metaphor:

Metaphorislanguagethatdirectlycomparesseeminglyunrelatedsubjects.Generally,ametaphorisarhetoricaltropethatdescribesafirstsubjectasbeingorequaltoasecondsubjectinsomeway.Thesubjectsaredescribedasatargetdomainandasourcedomain.Thetargetdomainistheexperiencebeingdescribedbythemetaphorandthesourcedomainisthemeansthatweuseinordertodescribetheexperience.

Metonymy:

MetonymyisdefinedasacognitiveprocessinwhichthevehicleprovidesmentalaccesstothetargetwithinthesamedomainMetonymyinthecognitiveliteratureismodeledasIdealizedCognitiveModels（ICMs）.

Neurocognition:

Neurocognitionreferstohowisthecognitivearchitectureoflanguageandlanguageprocessingimplementedinthehumanbrain.

ParallelModel:

Itdescribehowtheprocessorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.

Psycholinguistics:

Itisthestudyifpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.

Salience:

Ithastodowithourdirectionofattentiontowardssomethingthatissalienttous.Inperception,wecandirectoutattentiontowardspartsoftheperceivedscenery.Incognition,ithastodowiththeactivationofthemostrelevantconceptualstructures.

ScaleICM:

Scalesareaspecialclassofthingsandthescalarunitsarepartsofthem.Typically,ascaleasawholeisusedforitsupperendandtheupperendofascaleisusedtostandforthescaleasawhole.

Languageacquisitionisoneofthecentraltopicsinpsycholinguistics.Acquiringafirstlanguageissomethingeverychilddoessuccessfully,inamatterofafewyearsandwithouttheneedforformallessons.Fourphasesareidentifiedandacknowledgedintheprocessoflanguageacquisition:

holophrasticstage,two-wordstage,three-wordutterances,and,Fluentgrammaticalconversationstage.

Holophrasticstageisthefirstphaseoflanguageacquisition.Themainlinguisticaccomplishmentsduringthisstagearecontrolofthespeechmusculatureandsensitivitytothephoneticdistinctionsusedintheparents'language.

Two-wordstageisthesecondphaseoflanguageacquisition.Around18months,thechildbeginstolearnwordsatarateofoneeverytwowakinghours,andkeepslearningthatrateorfasterthroughadolescence.Theprimitivesyntaxbeginswithtwo-wordstrings.Childrenannouncewhenobjectsappear,disappear,andmoveabout,pointouttheirpropertiesandowners,commentonpeopledoingthingsandseeingthings,rejectandrequestobjectsandactivities,andaskaboutwho,what,andwhere.

Three-wordutterancesstageisthethirdphaseoflanguageacquisition.Three-wordutteranceslooklikesamplesdrawnfromlongerpotentialsentencesexpressingacompleteandmorecomplicatedidea.

Connectionism:

Withrespecttolanguagecomprehension,connectionisminpsycholinguisticsclaimsthatreadersusethesamesystemoflinksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundunitstogeneratethepronunciationsofwrittenwordsandtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwords,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns.

ThecohortmodelisasupposeddoctrinedealingwiththespokenwordrecognitionpostulatedbyMarslen-WilsonandWelshin1990,itissuggestedthatthefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetorcohortofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Thesecandidatescompetewithoneanotherforactivation.Asmoreacousticinputisanalyzed,candidatesthatarenolongerconsistentwiththeinputdropoutoftheset.Thisprocesscontinuesuntilonlyonewordcandidatematchestheinput;thebestfittingwordmaybechosenifnosinglecandidateisaclearwinner.

Theinteractivemodelholdsthatinrecognizingthespokenwordshigherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.Lexicalknowledgecanaffecttheperceptionofphonemes.Thereisinteractivityintheformoflexicaleffectsontheperceptionofsublexicalunits.

Theracemodelsuggestsinspokenwordrecognitiontherearetworoutesthatraceeachother--apre-lexicalroute,whichcomputesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignal,andalexicalroute,inwhichthephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessed.Whenword-levelinformationappearstoaffectalower-levelprocess,itisassumedthatthelexicalroutewontherace.

Serialmodelproposesthatthesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowstheconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammarwithremarkablespeed.Serialmodeldescribeshowtheprocessorquicklyconstructsoneormorerepresentationsofasentencebasedonarestrictedrangeofinformationthatisguaranteedtoberelevanttoitsinterpretation,primarilygrammaticalinformation.Anysuchrepresentationisthenquicklyinterpretedandevaluated,usingthefullrangeofinformationthatmightberelevant.

Parallelmodelemphasizesthatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.Parallelmodeldescribeshowtheprocessorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatlistenersandreadersintegrategrammaticalandsituationalknowledgeinunderstandingasentence.

Theresonancemodelisamodelabouttextcomprehension,inthismodel,informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.Semanticdetails,includingfactorssuchasnegationthatdrasticallychangethetruthofpropositions,donotseemtoaffecttheresonanceprocess.Itemphasizedamoreactiveandintelligentsearchformeaningasthebasisbywhichareaderdiscoverstheconceptualstructureofadiscourse.Inreadinganarrativetext,readerattemptstobuildarepresentationofthecausalstructureofthetext,analyzingeventsintermsofgoals,actions,andreactions.Aresonanceprocessservesasafirststageinprocessingatext,and,readingobjectivesanddetailsoftextstructuredeterminewhetherareadergoesfurtherandsearchesforacoherentstructureforthetext.

Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaysthroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregationetc.

Construaloperationsareconceptualizingprocessesusedinlanguageprocessbyhumanbeings.Thatis,construaloperationsaretheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.

Figure-groundalignmentseemstoapplytospacewiththegroundastheprepositionalobjectandtheprepositionexpressingthespatialrelationalconfiguration.Italsoappliestohumanperceptionofmovingobjects.Sincethemovingobjectistypicallythemostprominentone,becauseitismoving,itistypicallythefigure,whiletheremainingstimuliconstitutetheground.

Trajectormeansamovingordynamicfigure.

Landmarkmeansthegroundprovidedforamovingfi