Does Embeddedness Create Miracles The Case of the Anatolian Tigers in Turkey.docx

Does Embeddedness Create Miracles The Case of the Anatolian Tigers in Turkey.docx

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DoesEmbeddednessCreateMiraclesTheCaseoftheAnatolianTigersinTurkey

Does“Embeddedness”CreateMiraclesTheCaseofthe“AnatolianTigers”inTurkey

　　Abstract

　　Drawingondifferentformsofembeddedness，thisstudycriticallyexaminestheso-calledeconomicmiraclesintheAnatolianregionofTurkey，whicharecommonlyknownastheAnatolianTigers.BydecomposingthestoriesoftheAnatolianTigersasnewlociofeconomicgrowthsince1990s，formsofembeddednessillustratethespatio-institutionalfactorsaffectingbotheconomicandnon-economicrealmswithvaryingdistillationsfromlocalinstitutionalassets.TheseconditionsbecameinstrumentalforbothcollectivizinginterestsoftheleadinglocalcapitalistsanddisguisingthenegativeconsequencesoftherapidlyindustrializingandurbanizingcitiesofAnatolia.Throughopenendedin-depthinterviewsconductedwithleadingactorsinthecitiesofAnatolia，contentanalysisoftheavailableresourcespublishedbylocalorganizationsandmedia，thisstudyillustratestheroleofmultipleformsofembeddingmechanismsthatorchestrated“fragile”localeconomicmiraclesinTurkey.

　　Keywords：

Anatoliantigers；Formsofembeddedness；Turkey；Urbantransformation

　　Tok，M.E.（2015）.Does“Embeddedness”CreateMiracles？

TheCaseofthe“AnatolianTigers”inTurkey.CanadianSocialScience，11（4），-0.Availablefrom：

http：

//

　　DOI：

http：

//dx.doi.org/10.3968/6616

　　INTRODUCTION

　　Attheoutset，complexitiesbetweenthecultureandtheeconomy，theroleofculture，particularlyreligion，areevidentintheratherdistinctgrowthofAnatoliancitiessincethe1980s.Yet，theeconomic，politicalandsocialtransformationsthatoccurredinAnatoliathroughoutthe1990sand2000sshedslightonthedynamicsofneoliberalgrowthofsociallyembeddedeconomicrelations.AcrucialfacetofthistransformationhasbeentherapidindustrializationoftheAnatoliancities，commonlyreferredtoas‘AnatolianTigers’，andtheiropeninguptoworldmarkets.Overall，investigatingtheurbanpoliticaleconomyofrapidlygrowingAnatoliancitiesoffersauniqueopportunitytobetterunderstandthedynamicsoftheinterplaybetweenglobalization，localdynamicsandurbantransformation.

　　Therapidtransformationduringthemodernizationperiodintheearly1920swasfollowedbyincreasinglyneoliberaldevelopmentpoliciesaccompaniedbyhighlevelsofurbanisationandindustrialisationin1980s.Followingthe1980coupd’etat，whichbroughtashifttowardsflexibleproduction，agroupofAnatolianbusinessmenandanewdiscourseofrepresentingconservative/Islamicbusinesspeople’sinterests　　emerged.

　　AgainstthehistoricallyestablishedTurkishIndustrialistsandBusinesspeopleAssociation（TUS?

AD），manycity-basedinterestrepresentationorganizationsflourishedthroughouttheAnatolianregion，suchastheIndustrialistandBusinesspeopleAssociations（S?

ADs），ChambersofTrade/Industryandcivilsocietyorganizations.Inthiscontext，thebuoyanceoftheemergingconservativebourgeoisiebroughtintrainanewterm，whichcapturedtheeconomicallyboomingcitiesofAnatolia，fuelledbythebourgeoisieandtheirinterestrepresentationorganizations，namelytheAnatolianTigers.TheAnatolianTigersrefertothecitiesofKayseri，Gaziantep，?

orum，Konya，Eski?

ehir，andDenizli，allofwhichhaveexperiencednotableeconomicgrowthbeginninginthe1980s.Flexibleproduction，asBu?

ra（1998，p.522）argues，playedacentralroleintheresurgenceoflocalandregionaldevelopmentbyenabling“astrategicfit”betweentraditionalstructuresandglobalconditions.Thisreferstoabilityoflocalfirms，mostlySmall-Medium-Enterprise，torespondquicklyandflexiblyasmarketconditionschange（Sato?

lu，2009，pp.14-16）.

　　ManyscholarshavestudiedthecityofDenizli，Turkey，oneoftheearliestTigers.Theyidentifieda“strategicfit”betweenthelocalcollaborativestructuresofSmallandMediumEnterprises（SMEs）thatallowedforanarticulationtoglobalproductionnetworks，especiallyinthetextilessector，whichinturnledtounprecedentedeconomicdevelopment（Mutluer，1995；Erayd?

n，1998；Erendil，1998；Kü?

üker，1998；P?

narc?

o?

lu，2000）.Atasoy（2007），Ada?

（2006），Yavuz（2003），andTopraketal.（2005）focusedontheprocessofagencyformationoftheAnatolianTigers.ThesestudiesarguethattherehavebeenanumberofimportantendogenouslydrivendynamicsintheAnatoliancities.TheyfocusontheemergenceofasynergybetweenIslamandcapitalismwithinwhichthedefinitionsoftheeconomy，themarket，entrepreneurshipandworkethicarereconstructed，reworkedandcontestedbyIslamicbusinesspeople.Bay?

rba?

’s（2007，2009）studiesofGaziantephaveshown，throughlocalbusinessassociations，theinter-scalardynamicsofthenewpoliticalspacesthathavebeenconstructedforlocalandurbanactors.Ho?

g?

r（2011）bringsaratherdifferentperspective，critiquingtheseeffortstotheoriseculture?

Cinthiscase，Islamicculture?

Cwiththeaimofconstructinganewformofgrowth.ShepresentsahistoricaldiscourseanalysisofneoliberalgrowthofAnatoliancitiessince1980s.　　Overall，whetherthesecitiesaretheoutcomeofasuccessfuluseofIslamiccapitalimplyingaCalvinistapproachorwhethertheyarepureproductsofneoliberalurbangrowthisstillopentodiscussion.Againstthisbackground，thebroadobjectiveofthepaperistocriticallyexaminethenotionofembeddednesswithintheversatilecontextofneoliberalgrowththroughcase-studiesonthreecitiesintheAnatolianregionofTurkey：

Kayseri，GaziantepandEski?

ehir.Indoingso，thispaperrespondstoalaudablecallforthereciprocitybetweennation-centricpoliticaleconomicapproachesandmulti-scalarexplanationsofferedbyeconomicgeographiesinapoliticalcontext（Peck&Theodore，2007）.Wearguethatthesocietal，territorialandnetworkembeddednessof“AnatolianTigers”can，infact，bechallengedwiththestructuralfactorsasthemainfactorbehindtheirparticulargrowthpatterns.ThisisthemostevidentinhowfamilyfirmsinAnatoliahasmutuallyevolvedwiththestructuralreformsandsocialpolicychangesatthenationalstatelevel.Indoingso，wealsopointouthowthenotionofembeddednessisarticulatedinthesebusinessmen’sperceptionsoftheirpracticeswhiletherealityturnsouttobeotherwise.

　　1.METHODOLOGY

　　Inconductingthestudy，Ifirstreviewednationalnewspapersandmagazinesfrom1990to2012.Tohelpcomparenationalandlocalpolicydiscourses，Ialsoreviewedthreelocalnewspapers（thetotalnumberpublishedineachcity）forthesameperiodinKayseri，GaziantepandEski?

ehir，thecitiesinvestigatedinthisstudy.

　　Itisimportanttonotethatthesenewspaperswereownedbylocalentrepreneursandlocallyprominentfamiliesandwerethusrichsourcesforunderstandinghowlocalgrowthprojectshavebeencommunicatedtothelocalpublicthroughthefamilies.Thisstudycomparedthesepublicationsandperspectiveswiththenationalones，whichhelpedustosituatelocaldynamicswithinamorecompleteframework.Thelocalsourceswerealsousefulincapturingcertainpowerdynamicsnotcoveredbynationalsources.Unlikelocalnewspapers，thenationalnewspaperstendedtoportraythelocalityasaunity.Althoughthisispartiallycorrect，itisalsoimportanttotakenoteofthepowerstrugglesandasymmetriesbetweenlocalactors，whichinturnleaddifferentlocalnewspaperstoproducedifferentstoriesaboutthesameissue.Sometimes，problemsbetweenamunicipalityandacivilsocietyorganization，oramunicipalityandaspecificfamilyholdingorSmallandMediumEnterprises（SMEs）cangenerateconsiderableandinsightfullocaldiscussionthatisnotpickedupbynationalmedia.Likewise，differentlocalactorsoftenhavedifferentperspectivesonimportantexternalprocessessuchasglobalizationandEuropeanization.Localsourceswerethusconsultedtocaptureandportraytheselocaldynamics，powerstrugglesandinstitutional/organizationaldiscrepancies.Itisalsoequallycrucialtonotethatlocalnewspapersinthecitiesinvestigatedhaveoftenstayedmutetowardstheissuespertainingtothepoorconditionsofworkers，unregulated/informalcontractsandsafety.　　ThisclaimmayimplythatKayseri’seconomicsuccesscanbelinkedtotheeffortsmobilizedthroughclosely-knitfamilieswhosocializeeconomicdecisionsandcancollectivizetheiractions.Thestabilityofthedemographicconditionsalsorequiresattention，however.UnlikeGaziantepandEski?

ehir，Kayserihasaverylowrateofin-migration.ThedisciplinaryandregulatoryimpactoflocalinstitutionsinKayserialsomeansthateconomicdecisionsaremadecollectively.InKayseri，72%oftherespondentsindicatedthattheyavoidedusingbankcreditsinceinterestpaymentswereforbiddeninIslam.Whentheyranintofinancialdifficultytheygenerallyborrowedmoneyfromfamilyandotherkin.Nevertheless，thesesocialdynamicsdonotalwaysoperateontheinclusionsideofthespectrum.AsBazzal（2004）identified，economicandpoliticalintereststhatlayoutsidethelocalfamilycentredcoalitionsaredoomedtobeexcludedandforcedtosurvivewithoutsocietalembeddedness.

　　FamilytiesalsoplayanimportantroleinembeddingGaziantep’seconomicrelations.InGaziantep，theKonuko?

lufamilyownsSANKOHolding，thelargesteconomicestablishmentinKayseriwhichemploysmorethan125，000workers.Intermsofphilanthropy，well-establishedlocalfamilies，suchastheKonuko?

luandNak?

po?

lufamilies，engageinphilanthropicactivities；thescopeoftheseactivitiesismoremodestthaninKayseri.AbdulkadirKonuko?

lustatesthatitistheirresponsibility，aresp