The End of Ideology in the West.docx

The End of Ideology in the West.docx

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TheEndofIdeologyintheWest

DANIELBELL

TheEndofIdeology

intheWest*

Mencommittheerrorofnotknowing

whentolimittheirhopes．

一MACHIAVELLI

Therehavebeenfewperiodsinhistorywhenmanfelthisworldtobedurablesuspendedsurely,asinChristianallegorybetweenchaosandheavenanEgyptianpapyrusofmorethanfourthousandyearsago,onefinds:

"...impudenceisrife...thecountryisspinningroundandroundlikeapotter'swheel...themassesareliketimidsheepwithoutashepherd...onewhoyesterdaywasindigentisnowwealthyandthesometimerichoverwhelmhimwithadulation."TheHellenisticperiodasdescribedbyGilbertMurraywasoneofa“failureofnerve”;therewas“theriseofpessimism,alossofselfconfidence,ofhopeinthislifeandoffaithinnormalhumaneffort."AndtheoldscoundrelTalleyrandclaimedthatonlythosewholivedbefore1789couldhavetastedlifeinallitssweetness.

Thisage,too,canaddappropriatecitations—madeallthemorewryandbitterbythelongperiodofbrighthopethatprecededit—forthetwodecadesbetween1930and1950haveanintensitypeculiarinwrittenhistory:

world-wideeconomicdepressionandsharpclassstruggles;theriseoffascismandracialimperialisminacountrythathadstoodatanadvancedstageofhumanculture;thetragicself-immolationofarevolutionarygenerationthathadproclaimedthefineridealsofman;destructivewarofabreadthandscalehithertounknown;thebureaucratizedmurderofmillionsinconcentrationcampsanddeathchambers.

Fortheradicalintellectualwhohadarticulatedtherevolutionaryimpulsesofthepastcenturyandahalf,allthishasmeantanendtochiliastichopes,tomillenarianism,toapocalypticthinking—andtoideology.Forideology,whichoncewasaroadtoaction,hascometobeadeadend.

WhateveritsoriginsamongtheFrenchphilosophes,ideologyasawayoftranslatingideasintoactionwasgivenitssharpestphrasingbytheleftHegelians,byFeuerbachandbyMarx.Forthem,thefunctionofphilosophywastobecritical,toridthepresentofthepast.（"Thetraditionofallthedeadgenerationsweighslikeitnightmareonthebrainoftheliving,"wrote.Marx.）Feuerbach,themostradicalofalltheleftHegelians,calledhimselfLutherII.Manwouldbetree,hesaid,ifwecoulddemythologizereligion.Thehistoryofallthoughtwasahistoryofprogressivedisenchantment,anditfinally,inChristianity,Godhadbeentransformedfromaparochialdeitytoauniversalabstraction,thefunctionofcriticismusingtheradicaltoolofalienation,orself-estrangement-wastoreplacetheologybyanthropology',tosubstituteManforGod.Philosophywastobedirectedatlife,manwastobeliberatedfromthe"specterofabstractions"andextricatedfromthebindofsupernatural.Religionwascapableonlyofcreating"falseconsciousness."Philosophywouldreveal"trueconsciousness."AndbyplacingMan,ratherthanGod,atthecenterofconsciousness,Feuerbachsoughttobringthe"infiniteintothefinite."

IfFeucrbach"descendedintotheworld,"Marxsoughttotransformit.AndwhereFeuerbachproclaimedanthropology,Marx,reclaimingarootinsightofHegel,emphasizedHistoryandhistoricalcontexts.TheworldwasnotgenericMan,butmen;andofmen,classesofman.Mendifferedbecauseoftheirclassposition.Andtruthswereclasstruths.Alltruths,thus,weremasks,orpartialtruths,buttherealtruthwastherevolutionarytruth.Andthisrealtruthwasrational.

Thusadynamicwasintroducedintotheanalysisofideology,andintothecreationofanewideology.Bydemythologizingreligion,onerecovered（fromGodandsin）thethepotentialinman.Bytheunfoldingofhistory,rationalitywas,revealed.Inthestruggleofclasses,trueconsciousness,ratherthanfalseconsciousness,couldbeachieved.Butiftruthlayinaction,onemustact.TheleftHegelians,saidMarx,wereonlylitterateurs.（Forthemamagazinewas"practice."）ForMarx,theonlyrealactionwasinpolitics.Butaction,revolutionaryactionasMarxconceivedit,wasnotmeresocialchange.Itwas,initsway,theresumptionofalltheoldmillenrian,chiliasticideasoftheAnabaptists.Itwas,initsnewvision,anewideology.

Theanalysisofideologybelongsproperlyinthediscussionoftheintelligentsia.Onecansaythatwhatthepriestistoreligion,theintellectualistoideology.Thisinitselfgivesusacluetothedimensionsofthewordandthereasonforitsmultivariatefunctions.ThewordideologywascoinedbytheFrenchphilosopherDestuttdeTracy,attheendofthe18thcentury.TogetherwithotherEnlightenmentphilosophers,notablysuchmaterialistsasHelvetiusandHolbach,deTracywastryingtodefineawayofdiscovering"truth"otherthanthroughfaithandauthority,thetraditionalmathodsencouragedbyChurchandState.And,equally,undertheinfluenceofFrancisBacon,thesemenwereseekingsomewaytoeliminatetheaccidentsofbias,thedistortionsofprejudice,theidiosyncraciesofupbringing,theinterventionsofself-interestorthesimplewilltobelieve,allofwhich,likeshadowsinPlato'scave,createdillusionsoftruth."*Theiraimwasto"purify"ideasinordertoachieve"objective"truthand"correct"thought.Someofthem,Helvetius,forexample,believedthatonehadtogobacktotheoriginanddevelopmentofideasinordertoseehowdistortionsentered.DeTracybelievedthatone"purified"ideasbyreducingthemtosenseperceptions—abelatedFrenchvariantofBritishempiricismwithabarelyconcealedantireliiousbias—andthisnewscienceofideashecalled"ideology."

ThenegativeconnotationsofthetermarousewithNapoleaonHavingconsolidatedhispower,heforbadetheteachingofmoralandpoliticalscienceattheInstitutNationalanddenouncedthe"ideologues"asirresponsiblespeculatorswhoweresubvertingmoralityandpatriotism.Asarepublican,Napoleonhadbeensympathetictotheideasofthephilosophers;asEmperor,herecognizedtheimportanceofreligiousorthodoxyforthemaintenanceoftheState.

ButitwaswithMarxthattheword"ideology"wentthroughsomecuriouslydifferenttear.mutations.ForMarx,asinhisworkTheGermanIdeology,ideologywaslinkedtophilosophicalidealism,ortheconceptionthatideasareautonomous,andthatideas,independently,havethepowertorevealtruthandconsciousness.ForMarx,asamaterialist,thiswasfalsesince"existeliotdeterminedconsciousness"ratherthanviceversa;anyattempttodrawatpictureofrealityfromideasalonecouldproduceonly"falseconsciousness."Thus,forexample,infollowingFeuerbac-fromwhomMarxdrewmostofhisanalysisofideologyandalienation-heconsideredreligiontobeafalseconsciousness:

Godsarethecreationofmen'smindsandtheyonlyappeartoexistindependentlyanddetermineman'sfate;religionthereforeisanideology.

ButMarxwereonestepfurther.Ideologies,hesaid,arenotonlyfalseideasbuttheymaskparticularinterests.Ideologiesclaimtobetruth,butreflecttheneedsofspecificgroups.InhisearlyessaysonTheJewishQuestion,oneofthefewplaceswherehedealt,specificallywiththephilosophicalproblemsofStateandSociety,Marxsharplyattackedtheconceptof"naturalrights"asitappearedintheFrenchRevolution'sDeclarationoftheRightsofMan,andastheserightswerespecifiedintheStateconstitutionsofPennsylvaniaandNewHampshire.Thepresumptionof"naturalrights"-thefreedomtoworshiporthefreedomtoownproperty-wasthattheywere"absolute"or"transcendant"rights;forMarx,theywereonly"bourgeoisrights,"historicallyachieved,whichmadefalseclaimtouniversalvalidity.ThefunctionoftheState,Marxpointedout,wastocreatesomebasisforthe"generalwill."Inthe"civilsociety",whichthebourgeoisiehadcreated,theStatepresumablywastobenegativeorneutral.Eachmanwouldpursuehisownsell-interest,andasocialharmonywouldprevail.Butinfact,heargue,theStatewasusedtoenforetherightsofparticulargroups.Thustheclaimof"naturalrights"simplymaskedthedemandofthebourgeoisietobeabletousepropertytotheirownadvantage.Marxbelievedthattheindividualismof"naturalrights"wasafalseindividualism,sincemancouldonly"realize"himselfincommunity,andthattruefreedomwasnotfreedomofpropertyorfreedomofreligion,butfreedomfrompropertyandfreedomfromreligion—inshort,fromideology.Theattempt,therefore,toclaimuniversalvalidityforwhatwasinfactaclassinterest,wasideology.

MarxdifferedfromBentham,andotherutilitarians.inrecognizingthatindividualswerenotalwaysmotivatedbydirectself-interest.（Thiswas"vulgarhedonism."）Ideology,hesaid,wasameaningfulforce."Onemustnotformthenarrow-mindedidea,"hewroteinTheEighteenthBrumaire,"thatthepetty-bourgeoisiewantsonprincipletoenforceanegoisticclassinterest.Itbelieves,rather,thatthespecialconditionsofitsemancipationare,thegeneralconditionsthroughwhichalonemodernsocietycanbesavedandtheclassstruggleavoided."The"unmasking"ofideology,thus,istorevealthe"objective"interestbehindtheidea,andtoseewhatfunctiontheideologyserves.*

Theimplicationsofallthisarequitedirect.Forone,arationalisticanalysisofpoliticsaloneisinadequate.Whatpeoplesaytheybelievecannotalwaysbetakenatfacevalue,andonemustsearchforthestructureofinterestsbeneaththeideas;onelooksnotatthecontentofideas,buttheirfunction.Asecond,moreradicalconclusionisthatifideasmaskmaterialinterests,thenthe"testoftruth"ofadoctrineistoseewhatclassinterestsitserves.Inshort,truthis"classtruth."Thus,thereisnoobject