土木工程英文文献及翻译.docx

土木工程英文文献及翻译.docx

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土木工程英文文献及翻译

Ｃｉvｉlｅｎｇineering

Ｃivilengｉｎeeｒinｇiｓａprofessｉonａｌenginｅｅring　disciplinethatdealswith　thedｅsｉｇn,cｏnstｒｕcｔion，　ａnｄ　maintenance　oftｈe　pｈｙsicalanｄnaｔuralｌｙbuｉltｅnvｉrｏｎmenｔ,　ｉnｃluding　woｒksliｋebridｇes，　roａdｓ，　ｃanalｓ,ｄams，　anｄbuｉlｄinｇs．［1]［2］［3]Civilenｇineｅrｉｎgｉsｔｈｅｏlｄeｓｔ　engｉneeriｎｇｄｉｓcｉpｌｉneaftermiｌiｔaｒyenｇiｎeｅriｎg，［4］ａｎｄiｔwasdeｆｉnｅｄtoｄｉｓtinｇuiｓhｎon－militａry　engｉneeｒiｎgｆrommｉliｔary　engineerｉng．［5]　Itisｔｒadiｔiｏｎallybｒokｅnｉntoseveralsｕb－disｃiｐｌｉnｅsinｃｌuｄiｎgenvironｍeｎｔal　eｎｇineｅｒing，geotｅｃhｎicaｌeｎgiｎeerｉng,ｓｔructuralengineｅｒiｎg，　ｔrａnsportａtioneｎginｅeriｎg,ｍunｉcipａlorｕrban　ｅngiｎeｅring,wateｒresourｃesｅngｉneｅrinｇ,maｔｅrialsｅnｇineering，coastaｌｅnｇiｎｅeriｎg,[4]　surveｙｉng，　andcｏnsｔructiｏｎｅngineering．［6］Civilｅngineeｒiｎｇtakesplaceoｎ　all　leveｌs：

inｔhepｕbｌiｃ　ｓectorｆrommuｎiciｐalthroｕghto　nａtionaｌｇovｅrnmentｓ，　anｄ　in　ｔｈeprivaｔesectoｒfrom　indiｖidｕaｌ　homeownｅrｓ　thｒｏugｈｔointｅｒnａｔiｏnalcｏmpanｉeｓ。

Hiｓｔoryofthe　civilenginｅｅriｎｇ　profeｓｓion

Seeａlｓo:

　Hiｓtoｒy　ofｓｔructuｒaｌengineｅriｎg

Enｇineerｉnghasbeeｎ　ａnaspｅｃtofｌifｅsincethｅbegｉnnｉngsof　humaneｘistｅnｃe.Ｔhe　eaｒｌieｓtpｒactｉｃesofＣiｖiｌenｇｉｎeering　mａyhaｖeｃoｍｍencｅdｂｅtween400０anｄ2０0０BCin　Ａncienｔ　Eｇypｔ　andMeｓopotａmia（AnｃientIrａｑ）　whenｈｕmansｓtaｒtedｔｏ　abaｎdｏn　ａnｏｍａｄｉcexistenｃｅ，thus　ｃausinganeedｆｏｒtｈｅ　constｒuｃｔionofshelｔer．　Durinｇthistｉme，　traｎspｏrｔatiｏnｂeｃameincｒeasingly　impoｒtantｌeａdｉｎｇtｏthedevelopmeｎt　ofｔｈewｈeeｌandsailｉng.

Until　mｏｄerｎtiｍeｓ　tｈｅｒｅｗasnｏcleaｒｄisｔiｎctｉoｎbｅtweenｃivilenｇｉnｅeriｎgａndａrｃhｉtecｔuｒe,andthetermengineeraｎdａrchｉtectwere　mainlygeｏgraphicalvaｒiatｉonsｒeferｒing　ｔo　ｔｈe　same　pｅｒｓｏn，　ｏfteｎuｓediｎtｅrchanｇeａbly．［7］The　conｓtructiｏnofPyraｍiｄｓinEｇｙpt（circa27００-２5０0BＣ）mightbeｃonｓidｅrｅdｔhefirstｉnstanceｓoｆlａｒgestructuｒeｃonstructions.Oｔherancｉent　hiｓtｏriｃ　civiｌengineeｒiｎgｃｏnstruｃｔionsｉnclｕdetheParｔhenon　by　Iktｉｎｏsin　Ancｉenｔ　Grｅece　（447-４38BC）,theAppｉａｎ　Way　by　Ｒoｍaneｎgｉneers（c。

　31２BC）,　theＧreatWａlｌｏfＣhinａby　GenerａlMeng　T'ｉenｕnderｏrderｓｆｒomCｈ'inＥmｐeｒor　Shih　HuangTi（c。

2２0BC）[６］andtｈｅstupasｃonｓｔrｕcteｄinancｉentＳriLａnkaｌikeｔhｅJeｔａvａｎaramａｙaaｎｄtheeｘｔensiveirrigationwｏｒｋs　iｎ　Ａnurａdｈａpｕｒａ.ＴｈeRomａnsdevelopｅdcivｉlstrｕctｕｒes　ｔhroｕghouttheirempire，iｎcludingeｓpecialｌyaquｅdｕｃts，　iｎsuｌａｅ,　hａrbｏuｒs，briｄgeｓ,damsａnｄroａds.

Inｔhe　１8th　ｃｅntｕｒy，the　tｅrmｃiｖｉleｎgｉｎeｅｒingwaｓcoｉｎeｄto　iｎcoｒporate　all　ｔhiｎｇsｃiviｌｉａｎ　ａｓoｐpｏsedｔomｉlｉｔary　ｅngineｅrｉｎｇ。

[5］The　firｓtｓeｌｆ-proclaｉｍed　ciｖil　engiｎeeｒwasJoｈnSmｅaｔoｎ　ｗｈoｃonｓtrｕcteｄthｅEｄｄｙstoｎeＬiｇhthoｕse.［４］［6]In１７７1SmeａtonａndｓomeofhisｃｏlleagｕesfｏｒmedｔｈeSｍｅａｔoｎiａn　Ｓociety　of　CiviｌEngineｅrｓ，　ａgｒｏｕp　ｏｆleadersｏｆ　ｔheprofessionwhometinfoｒmaｌlｙoveｒdｉnner。

Thｏｕghthｅrｅｗasｅvideｎcｅoｆsomeｔeｃhniｃａlｍｅetings，itwaslｉtｔleｍore　thaｎasociaｌ　sｏciety。

Iｎ　1818ｔｈeＩnstitｕtioｎoｆCivilＥngiｎｅerswas　fｏunｄｅdin　Lｏndｏｎ，andin1820theeminentengineｅｒTｈomasTelfordbｅｃaｍeiｔｓfirｓtｐreｓidｅnt。

Tｈeinsｔｉtｕtｉon　rｅｃeｉveda　RoｙalＣharterin1828，ｆormaｌlｙｒecogｎising　civiｌｅnｇineerｉngasaｐｒofesｓｉon.Itscharｔeｒdｅfiｎｅdcｉviｌenginｅeriｎg　as：

thearｔof　direcｔｉng　thegreat　sｏuｒcesoｆｐoweｒ　ｉｎｎａturefｏｒtheuｓｅandcｏnveｎiencｅofmａn，asthｅmeａｎsｏｆｐroductionaｎdoｆ　trafｆicin　ｓtａtｅs,boｔｈfｏrextｅrnaｌ　andinternalｔrａｄｅ，ａsappｌieｄｉntｈeconstructｉonofroａｄs,bridgeｓ，ａqueduｃtｓ，canａls，　ｒiｖeｒnａvigation　anddｏｃksfｏr　iｎｔｅrｎaｌｉnｔercoursｅaｎdexchanｇｅ,and　intheｃonstｒｕctionｏf　portｓ，hａrboｕrs，　mｏleｓ，ｂreakｗａterｓandｌｉgｈｔhoｕses，　ａndintheaｒｔ　oｆnavigａtionbyartｉficialｐｏwｅrfortｈeｐuｒpｏsｅs　oｆcommeｒcｅ，and　ｉｎ　tｈeconsｔｒucｔｉoｎ　ａndaｐplicａｔioｎoｆ　mａchinery,ａndintｈeｄraｉnａｇeofciｔies　andtowns．[８］

Ｔhｅ　fｉｒstpriｖaｔe　cｏllegｅtoteａchCivilＥnｇiｎeeringiｎ　theUnitｅdStaｔeswasNorwich　Univeｒsity　ｆouｎdedin181９byCａptainAldenPaｒtridｇe。

［9]TｈｅfirsｔdeｇreｅinCivil　Engineerｉngｉnthｅ　UnitedStatｅｓ　wasａwａrded　byReｎssｅｌａerPolｙtｅchｎiｃInstitｕtｅin1835。

［10]Ｔhefirsｔsuｃhdｅｇrｅetobeaｗａrｄedtoa　wｏman　wasｇranted　byＣorneｌlUｎivｅｒｓiｔyｔo　NoｒａStａntｏｎ　Blatcｈ　in1905.

Hｉstorｙ　ofｃiｖｉlengineｅriｎｇ

Cｉvilｅｎgineeｒingisｔheapｐlicａtionｏfpｈｙsｉｃal　aｎdscientificprinciples，aｎditshistoryisinｔｒiｃａteｌｙlinkedｔoａdｖａnceｓinｕndｅｒsｔandiｎgoｆpｈyｓicsanｄmathematics　thrｏughoｕt　hiｓtoｒy．Becaｕsｅｃｉｖｉlｅngｉｎｅｅring　is　awidｅranｇiｎgprｏfｅssioｎ，inclｕdｉｎgsevｅralｓeｐａrａteｓpecializedｓub—dｉsciｐlｉnes，ｉtsｈistｏryｉslinkｅdtoknowledｇｅof　ｓｔｒuｃtuｒes,mateｒiａls　scienｃe,ｇeｏgraphｙ，gｅｏlogｙ,soilｓ，hydroｌogｙ，enｖiｒoｎｍeｎt，mechanicsａｎdotheｒ　fields．

Thrｏughouｔａｎciｅntand　mｅdievalhｉｓｔｏryｍｏsｔaｒcｈiteｃturaldeｓigｎand　conｓｔrｕctionwaｓcarrｉedoｕtｂｙarｔisans,suｃhasstonｅｍasons　andcaｒpenｔeｒs,riｓiｎｇtotｈerolｅofmａster　builｄer．Knoｗlｅdｇewasretａiｎedｉn　gｕiｌｄｓaｎd　sｅldoｍ　ｓuppｌaｎtｅdbyadvaｎces。

Sｔｒuｃｔｕres,　roadsanｄ　ｉnfrastｒucturetｈatexisteｄwererepｅtitive，　ａnd　ｉncrｅasesinscａｌewereｉnｃrｅmental.[12]

Onｅoftｈeearlｉｅｓtexampleｓofaｓcｉentiｆｉc　apprｏachtophｙsicalaｎdｍａｔｈematｉcaｌｐrobleｍsapplicable　ｔo　civil　enginｅｅriｎｇisthe　woｒkof　Arｃhimｅdesｉn　the3rdｃenturyＢC，incluｄｉngArｃｈimｅdesPrｉnciple,　wｈｉchunderｐiｎsoｕｒｕndeｒstanding　ｏfbuｏyａnｃｙ,ａndpractiｃalsｏlutions　ｓｕch　asArchｉｍedes＇　ｓcrew．Brａhmaｇupta，an　Indianmatheｍaｔician,usｅｄ　ａrithmeｔicinthｅ７thcentuｒy　AD，bａsｅdonHｉnｄu－Arabicｎumｅralｓ，ｆoｒｅxｃavation　（voｌume）ｃｏｍpｕｔａtionｓ．[13］

Cｉｖiｌｅngineers　tｙpicａllyｐｏssｅsｓ　ａnacaｄemicdegrｅｅwｉｔｈa　majｏriｎcｉvｉlengineering。

Theleｎgthofｓtudyforsuｃhａdegreeisｕsuａｌｌyｔhｒee　tofｉｖeyearｓandthecomｐlｅteｄdｅｇｒeｅisusualｌy　designatｅdasaBachelｏrofEngｉneering，　thｏughsｏｍe　ｕniversitieｓｄesｉgｎatetｈeｄegree　asaBaｃｈｅlｏr　ofScienｃe．Thedｅgreegeneraｌｌyincludes　unitｓ　cｏｖerｉngphysicｓ，mａtｈemａtiｃs，ｐrｏjectmaｎａｇeｍent，　deｓignandspeciｆｉctｏpｉｃsiｎcivilｅngiｎeering.Initｉａｌｌysuｃh　ｔopicscovｅr　mｏst，ifnoｔaｌl，ofthesub－disｃｉplｉｎｅsofcivilenｇineerｉng。

Stｕdeｎtstｈen　choosｅ　ｔospeciａliｚeinoｎeoｒ　moｒesub-discｉpliｎestowardstheeｎdoｆthｅ　ｄｅｇｒee。

[1４］ＷhileanUndergｒaｄuaｔe　（BEng/ＢSc）Ｄegrｅewill　normallyprｏvidｅsuccessｆulstｕdentswiｔhindustrｙ　ａccredｉteｄ　qｕaｌｉfiｃation，soｍｅuniｖersｉtｉes　ｏffｅrpostgｒａｄuateｅnginｅeringaｗards（MEng/ＭＳｃ）ｗhicｈallｏwstudeｎｔsｔofuｒtｈｅrspeciａliｚｅ　inｔhｅｉrparｔｉculaｒ　ａreaoｆｉnterestｗitｈinengineerinｇ．[15]

Ｉnｍost　coｕntries，　aBaｃｈeｌor’sdｅｇｒｅeiｎengiｎｅｅrinｇrepreseｎtsｔhe　ｆiｒststeｐtowａｒdsprｏfessionalcertificａtionandthｅ　ｄｅgｒeeｐrograｍ　ｉtself　ｉsｃertｉfiedbyapｒofessioｎａl　boｄy.Afteｒcomｐlｅtingacertifiｅddeｇrｅeproｇｒａmｔhｅｅngiｎeermustｓａtisfyａｒangeof　ｒｅquｉreｍｅnts（including　wｏrｋｅxpeｒiｅnｃｅand　exａmｒequｉremｅnts）beforeｂeingcｅrtｉｆｉed。

Ｏｎｃｅ　cerｔified，ｔｈeenｇineｅriｓｄesiｇnaｔｅｄtｈetitlｅofＰrｏfessionａlEngｉnｅｅr　（ｉnｔheＵnited　States，CaｎadａａndＳｏuthAfｒica）,ＣｈａrteredEnginｅｅｒ（iｎmost　Cｏｍｍonｗｅaｌthcounｔrｉes），　ＣhartereｄProfｅｓsionａl　Ｅngｉneer　（iｎAustraliaandＮewZeａland），oｒEｕｒｏpｅａnEnｇineer　（inｍuch　ｏｆ　theEuｒｏpeanUniｏn）.Thｅrｅａreiｎｔｅrｎationａｌｅngineeｒｉng　ａgｒeeｍｅntｓｂｅtweeｎrelevantprofesｓionalbodiｅswhicharｅdesignedtoａllｏwｅnｇineersｔｏｐracｔｉceacrosｓｉnｔernationalbｏrderｓ.

Theaｄvａntageｓofcｅrtｉficationvaｒｙ　dependiｎｇupｏnｌｏｃaｔion．Ｆorexampｌe,intheUnitedＳtatｅsand　Cａｎａda　”onlyaｌicenｓedｅngineer　mａyｐrepaｒe，sign　and　sｅal,anｄsuｂmit　engineeringｐｌaｎsａｎｄｄrawingstｏaｐｕｂlicａｕｔhority　fｏr　approｖal，ｏｒsｅal　ｅngineerｉnｇwoｒｋforpuｂlｉc　aｎdｐrivatｅ　clientｓ.".［16]ThisreqｕiremｅntｉsenforcedｂystateandprｏvinciaｌlｅgisｌatioｎsuchasQuｅbeｃ'sＥｎgineerｓAct．［１7]Inoｔｈｅｒcountries,ｎｏsｕｃhleｇislatiｏｎexｉsts.In　Aｕstｒａliａ,ｓｔａtelｉceｎｓing　ofengineｅrsiｓlimｉtedtｏtｈe　stateofＱｕeensｌand.Practiｃａｌｌyａllcertifｙiｎｇboｄiｅｓmaintaｉnacodｅofethicsthat　thｅy　ｅxｐeｃtallｍemberｓｔo　ａbidebyｏrriskexｐulsiｏｎ．［１8］Iｎ　thiｓway，ｔheseorgａnizａtｉｏns　plａｙanimｐorｔａnｔ　ｒoleｉnｍａintainｉｎgethｉcalstandａrds　fortｈeｐrofeｓsｉｏn。

Evｅnin　jｕrisdictionswｈerecertｉfｉcatiｏnhaｓliｔtle　oｒnolegａｌbｅarｉngon　woｒｋ，　engiｎeersａrｅｓubｊect　toｃoｎtraｃtｌaｗ。

Incaseswhｅre　ａｎenginｅer＇ｓworkｆａils　ｈｅorshｅmaybe　subjectto　ｔｈetｏrｔofnegｌｉgｅnce　ａnd，in　extremecasｅｓ，thｅchargｅ　ofcrimiｎal　negｌigeｎce。

[ciｔaｔioｎneeｄed］　Anｅｎgｉnｅer’sworkmｕst　alｓocoｍpｌywiｔhnumerouｓ　oｔherrulesanｄregulationｓsuchａs　ｂuiｌdｉｎgcodesａｎdｌｅgislation　perｔaｉniｎｇ　ｔoｅnvironmeｎｔallａw.

Cａreｅｒs

Thｅreisnｏｏneｔypical　ｃaｒeerpaｔhｆorｃiviｌengineerｓ．Ｍosｔpeopｌｅｗhogradｕatewｉtｈｃiｖilenｇineｅring　degrｅｅs　stａrt　with　jｏbs　thａtrequｉrｅ　a　ｌoｗlevelｏｆｒesponｓibｉliｔy，andaｓ　the　ｎewｅngineers　prｏvetheｉrcompｅteｎｃｅ，theyare　trusｔed　ｗiｔhtaskstｈaｔｈaｖelａrｇer　conｓequenｃesaｎｄ　requirｅ　a　highｅrleveｌofrｅｓpoｎsibiｌity.Hoｗｅvｅr,　ｗｉthiｎｅａcｈ　brａｎｃh　ofciｖilｅngｉneeｒｉnｇｃａｒｅerpaｔｈopｔionsvaｒｙ．In　sｏmｅｆields　andfiｒms，ｅntrｙ—level　ｅngｉｎeeｒsare　putｔｏwork　ｐrimarilymoｎitoringcｏｎstruｃtioｎiｎthｅfield，　serving　asthe"eyeｓ　ａｎdｅａrｓ”ofsenｉorｄesｉgneｎgineers;whilｅin　otherａreaｓ，ｅntｒy－levelengｉneｅrspeｒｆorm　themoｒerｏuｔineｔaskｓｏｆ　ａｎaｌｙsisor　dｅsiｇnａndinterｐretaｔion．Exｐeriｅnｃedengiｎeeｒsgｅneralｌydｏmｏre　complexanalysiｓoｒ　desｉgnwｏrk，ｏrmaｎagementofmｏrecｏｍplex　dｅsignprojectｓ,or　mａnagｅmｅｎtofotｈereｎgineｅrs,or　intospecializｅdcoｎｓultiｎg，ｉｎclｕdinｇforｅnsｉｃｅｎｇineeｒing。

Iｎgｅneｒal，civiｌ　enｇineerｉｎgiｓconcerｎedwitｈtheoveｒall　ｉnterfacｅofｈumａｎｃreateｄfixeｄprojｅｃtswiththeｇreateｒｗｏｒld。

Geneｒalciviｌenginｅersｗorkcｌｏseｌyｗithsｕrｖeyoｒs　aｎdspeｃiａlizedciviｌｅｎgineerｓto　fitａnd　servｅfiｘedｐrojects　ｗithｉntheirｇｉvensite，　commuｎityａndterraｉnby　dｅsｉｇｎinggraｄing,dｒainaｇｅ，paｖemeｎt,watersupplｙ,sewｅrservｉcｅ，eｌectric　aｎdcｏmmunｉcationssupply,andlａnddｉviｓioｎs.Geneｒalｅｎｇｉnｅersspenｄ　muchoｆtｈeｉrtiｍe　vｉsｉtiｎｇ　ｐrｏｊecｔｓites,devｅｌｏpingcommunityconsｅnsｕｓ,aｎd　pｒｅpaｒing　coｎstｒucｔion　plans。

Generalcivilengineｅriｎg　isalｓo　rｅferrｅｄtoaｓ　ｓiteeｎｇineｅｒing,abrａnchof　ｃivileｎgineering　thatprimarｉｌyｆocuｓeson　cｏnvertinｇａt