西方马克思主义经典西文文献.docx

西方马克思主义经典西文文献.docx

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西方马克思主义经典西文文献

2.WhatisHegel’sPhilosophyofHistory?

TerryPinkard

©2011TerryPinkard

AlthoughHegel’sphilosophyofhistory–aslaidoutinhisfamouslectureseriesonthesubject–hasalwaysbeenregardedasaworthyintellectualmonumentanditsinfluencehasbeenhuge,itfindsfewdefendersnowadays.Althoughsomethemesfromhislectureseriesonthetopicareoccasionallypickedupandmentioned（suchastheimportanceof“freedom”forHegel’soverallviews）,hismajorclaimsinthephilosophyofhistoryarebyandlargedismissed–especiallytheideasthathavetodowiththerebeingakindofconceptualnecessitytohistoricalchange,orthathistoryhasa“subject”（namely,Geist）thatisdevelopingitself,orthatthereissomekindofend-pointatwhichhistoryisaiming.Althoughsuchideasmaystillhaveaholdonthepopularimagination,andalthoughmorepopularwritersmayfloatthemvariouslyatopportunemoments,itishardtofindmanyifanyseriousphilosopherswhosubscribetothatview.Moreover,virtuallyallseriouspracticinghistoriansnowadaysrejectasempiricallyuselessorevendangerouslyfancifultheideaofteleologyinhistory.ThatHegelinhisstoryalsowritesoffChina,IndiaandAfricaasuselessforworldhistory,allthewhileextollingthevirtuesof“Europe,”hasnowadaysnotexactlyaddedanyextraappealtohisaccount.

Forthemostpart,whatpeoplecurrentlyfindtobeoflastinginterestinHegel’sphilosophyofhistoryisnothisphilosophyofhistoryatallbutanotherideaaboutthe“historicity”ofagencythatisatworkinHegel’sthought.Ofcoursetheterm,“historicity”doesnotappearinHegel’stexts.“Historicity”isanideaintroducedbyHeidegger.Itistheidea,moreorless,thatallagencyisfundamentallyhistoricalinthatthenormsthatguideagencyinitsthought,actionandaestheticjudgmentarefundamentallyindexedtothehistoricalsituationinwhichanagentfindsherself.Humanexistencefindsitself“thrown”intoahistoricalworldthatdoesitselfpointtoorsituateitselfwithinanygreaterintelligiblewhole.“Historicity”isthusamuchmoreradicalviewthanthatwhichsimplynotesthateverypersonisachildofherowntime.（EvenPlatocouldhaveagreedwiththelatter.）“Historicity”isathesisabouttheradicalfinitudeandthusultimateunintelligibilityofhumanagency.

Nonetheless,eventhoughtheterminologyisHeideggerian,theideaof“historicity”doesseemtoencapsulatewhatHegelmusthavemeantwhenhesaidthatphilosophyisonlyitsowntimegraspedinthought.HistoricityisafairenoughtermtouseinexplicatingHegelevenifHegelhimselfneverusesit.

However,the“historicity”ofagencydoesnotimplyanythingparticularabouttheteleologyofhistory.EventhoughHegelmayindeedhavethoughtthathumansweregettingbetteratsomethingovertime–andthustherewassomewayofmarkingprogressinsomeareaoranother–hisviewsontheconceptualnecessityofacertaintypeofhistoricalprogressionareatoddswiththekindofradicalcontingencyofnormschampionedbyHeideggerandthoseinfluencedbyhim.ForthosecriticsofHegelinfluencedbyHeideggeroratleastbytheideaof“historicity,”whatistobepreservedinHegel’sthoughtishisstressonhistoricalmediationandhistoricalembeddedness,buthisown“philosophyofhistory”canitselfonlybeof“historical”andnotofgenuine“philosophical”interest.“Historicity”andthe“philosophyofhistory”as“theprogressoftheconsciousnessoffreedom”aretwodistinctthemes.

Hegel’sownmusingsaboutthephilosophyofhistoryappearinvariousplaces.ReferencestothehistoryofGeistare,ofcourse,alloverthePhenomenologyofSpirit,andhealsoexplicitlyspeaksthereof“thesystemoftheshapesofconsciousnessasalifeofspiritorderingitselfintoawhole–thesystemwhichishereunderexaminationandwhichhasitsobjectiveexistenceasworldhistory.”Moreover,Hegel’sownideaofthenecessityoftakingahistoricalapproachsimilartothattakenbythePhenomenologyisnaturallymorethanevidentinthelecturesonthephilosophyofartandonthephilosophyofreligion,nottomentionthoseonthehistoryofphilosophy.

Itisthusobviousthatsomethingliketheconceptof“historicalmediation”isimportantforHegel’soverallproject.However,whatdoesthiskindof“historicity”meanforthe“philosophyofhistory”?

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Now,therearelotsofthingsthatareinterestinginthestudyofhistory,andiftheradicalideaencapsulatedintheconceptof“historicity”isaccepted,thenhistoryaspracticedbytheserioushistorianwillofcoursebeofgreatinterestinfleshingoutallthedetailsofwhatthe“historicity”ofournormsturnsoutconcretelytobe,sincetheir“historicity”meansthatfewifanyofthemcanbederivedfrompurepracticalreasonorfrompuremetaphysics.However,Hegel’sinquiryhastodowithwhetherthereisanymoredistinctlyphilosophicalinterestinhistoryotherthantheuseofhistoryastheapplicationorinstantiationoftheabstractphilosophicalideaof“historicity”itself.Whatdifferencecanempiricalhistorymaketophilosophy?

Itisofcoursedifficulttostatehisprojectinanysimpleterms,butnonetheless,thefollowingcanbetakenasaroughsummaryofhisprogram.Hegelisconcernedwithhowcertainaccountsorassertionsabout（ultimately）mindandworldare,whentakenasfinal,ultimate,unconditionalor“absolute,”themselvesriddledwithinternaltensionsthatcanrunallthewayuptooutrightcontradictions.Onreflection,suchtensionsultimatelyleadtoabreakdownintheassertionsoraccountsthemselves,suchthattheaccountsfindthemselvessupplantedbysomeotheraccount.Thisisnotbecausetheaccountthatsucceedsthefailedoneisitspresupposition.Rather,thesuccessoraccountisnecessaryinordertotamethecontradictionsatworkinthefirstaccountandtoshiftthecontextoftheaccount.

Humanagentsareself-consciousprimates,and“because[theagent]knowsthatheisananimal,heceasestobeananimalandgiveshimselftheknowledgeofhimselfasGeist[spirit].”OnHegel’smodel,self-consciousnessinvolvesanawarenessofone’sreasonsasreasons,anawareness,asitwere,ofbeinglocatedinapracticeofgivingandaskingforreasons.

Inbeingsoaware,aself-consciousagentisprojectedbeyondhimselfintheminimalsensethathemusttakehisbearingsfromsomething“other”thanhisownsubjectiveexperiencesinordertocomprehendwhatthoseexperiencesdisclosetohimabouttheworldorabouthisplaceinit.Indoingso,theagentcomestogripwithnormativelimitsonhisthought,experienceandaction.Whatisvalidforhimissetnotbyhimselfbutsomething“other”tohim,whetheritbeanobjectofperceptionthatmakestheexperientialjudgmenttrueoranethicaldemandputonhimbyanotheragentwhopossessestheauthoritytomakesuchdemands.

Now,asself-consciousprimates,humanagentshavegoalsintrinsictotheirstatusasprimates.Likeallotheranimals,theymusteat,theymustdowhattheycantoavoidpredators,andtheyhaveadistinctdesiretoengageinprocreativeactivities.Asself-consciousprimates,theyalso,nodoubt,havemanyothernaturaldrives,suchastheimpulsetosociability,toliveincertainkindsofgroupsandevencertainwaystoreasonnaturally.However,thenormativeforceofthesenaturalendsiscircumscribedbyothernormsforsuchself-consciousprimates.Suchacircumscriptionofauthoritybothnegatestheoriginalnormativeclaim（inthesensethatitputsalimitonitsvalidityor,insomecases,eventakesitoutofconsiderationentirely）,andatthesametimeitpreservesitsnormativestatus（itsstatusasaclaimdoesnotsimplygoaway）.Tocharacterizethiswayinwhichsomeclaimsarecircumscribedbyotherclaimsthatassertaadifferentandsuperiorauthority,HegelusestheordinaryGermanterm,Aufhebung,initstwosensesofpreservingandnegating.

Themostobviousquestionabouttheestablishmentofsuchauthorityishowanythingatallcouldbeinapositiontoclaimsuchanauthorityforitself.Suchdesiresgobeyondwhatisultimatelybuiltintotheorganismasamerelynaturalorganism.Inanobviousandtrivialsense,thebiologicalsetupofthekindofself-interpretingprimatesweareprovidesthenaturalpossibilitythatwecanestablishsuchrelationsofauthority,andthatbiologymayevenputcertainconstraintsontheestablishmentofauthority–theinescapablefactofmortalityisonesuchconstraint–butitdoesnotfullydeterminethelinesalongwhichauthoritythenflows.Thisisespeciallyevidentwhenonesuchdesire–suchasadesireforunconditionalrecognitionas“the”authorityinasocialsituation–caninitsstrengthoutweighsomethingotherwisestronglybuiltintotheorganism,suchasthefearofdeath（ashappensinthestrugglesovermasteryandservitudethatHegelthinkslieatthebasisofhumanpre-history）.

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Self-interpretingprimatesthusfaceadistinctphilosophicalissue:

Isthereanyrationalwaytosaythatoneinterpretationofagencyisbetterthananother?

Ifoneacceptstheideathathumanagencyhasadeephistoricitytoitself,thenthestatusofanykindofinterpretationofwhatisrationallyrequiredofagentsisitselfhistorical,thatis,dependentonasetofothermeanings,institutionsandpracticesthatarethemselvesdevelopmentsoutofothersuchhistoricallyembeddedpractices.However,ifhistoricitydoesindeedreachsodeeply,howdoesoneavoidtakingthe“bestargument”forthe“bestinterpretation”toturnoutineffectalwaystobeacelebrationofourownstatusatthetimewearemakingtheargument?

Tocometosuchaself-comprehensionisalso