语言学一到四章.docx

语言学一到四章.docx

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语言学一到四章

Chapter1.Languageandlinguistics

一，language

1.Whatislanguage?

2.Designfeaturesoflanguage3.Functionsoflanguage4.Theoriginoflanguage5.Differencesbetweenhumanlanguageandanimallanguage

1.Whatislanguage?

Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsused

forhumancommunication.语言是一个用于人类交际的、具有任意性的语音符号系统。

Languageisasystem.

Systematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.

Languageisarbitrary

Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.

Languageissymbolicinnature

Symbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare

Languageisprimarilyvocal

Vocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.

Languageishuman-specific

Human-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.

2.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage（CharlesHockett）

Thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.人类语言区别于任何一种动物交际系统的规定性特征。

•Arbitrariness•Productivity/Creativity

•Duality双重•Displacement移位•Culturaltransmission

Arbitrariness

Nological（motivatedorintrinsic）connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.

Onomatopoeicwords（whichimitatenaturalsounds）aresomewhatmotivated（English:

rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:

putong,shasha,dingdang…）

Productivity/creativity

Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.

Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.

Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires

Duality

Lowerlevel----sounds（meaningless）Higherlevel----meaning（largerunitsofmeaning）

Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning（words）,andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.

Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:

realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.

Agibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyear

Thereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.

Culturaltransmission

Languageisculturallytransmitted（throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct）.Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.

AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.

Thestoryofawolfchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.

3.Functionsoflanguage

Phatic寒暄:

forestablishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas.Greetings,farewellsandcommentsontheweatherservethisfunction.eg.“Aniceday,isn’tit?

”doesn’tinformthehearerabouttheweather,foritisafacthehimselfcansee.Butitdoesmakethehearerfeelgoodbecausethesentenceshowstherelationshipbetweenthemremainswhatitwas.eg.“Howareyoutoday?

”thespeakerisnotreallyinterestedinthehearer’sstateofhealth,butisanexpressionofgoodwill

Directive指令:

getthehearertodosomething.eg.“Passmethesalt,please”.

Informative信息:

giveinformationaboutfacts.Informativestatementsareoftenjudgedastrueorfalse.eg.“Waterboilsat212degreeFahrenheit”isatruestatement

Interrogative:

getinformationfromothers.eg.“Whendidhearrive?

”

Expressive表达:

expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.eg.MyGod!

”or“Wearemostgratefulforthis.”

Evocative表情:

createcertainfeelingsinthehearer（amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease）eg.jokesaredesignedtoamuseorentertaintheaudience;advertisingisdevisedtourgecustomerstobuythementionedgoods;propogandaaimstoinfluencepublicopinionalongacertainline.

Evocativefunction表情------touselanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimistoamuse,startle,anger,soothe,worryorplease.eg.jokesaredesignedtoamuseorentertaintheaudience;advertisingisdevisedtourgecustomerstobuythementionedgoods;propogandaaimstoinfluencepublicopinionalongacertainline.

4.Theoriginoflanguage

Thedivine-origintheory----LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.

Theinventiontheory----imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.

Theevolutionarytheory----theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.

5.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenhumanlanguageandanimallanguage

Humanlanguageisdifferentfromanimallanguageinthattheformerisasymbolicsystem,whereasthelatterislargelysymptomatic征兆性.

Bysymptomaticity,wemeanthetokens标志animalsuseintheircommunicationarespontaneousreflectionsoftheirinternalstatesoremotions.Therefore,animalshaveanaturalcommunicationsystemratherthanpossesslanguage.

二，linguistics

Whatislinguistics?

FourprinciplesoflinguisticstudiesThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsSomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

1.Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

2.Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies

Exhaustiveness/adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity

3.Thescopeormajorbranchesoflinguistics

Theoreticallinguistics/ Microlinguistics微观语言学：

PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmatics

Useoflinguistics/Macroliguistics宏观语言学：

AppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics

Theoreticallinguistics

Phonetics----speechsound（description,classification,transcription）:

articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.

Phonology----soundpatternsoflanguages

Morphology----theformofwords

Syntax----therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.

Semantics----themeaningoflanguage

Pragmatics----whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse

Useoflinguistics

Appliedlinguistics----linguisticsandlanguageteaching

Sociolinguistics----socialfactors（e.g.class,education）affectlanguageusePsycholinguistics----linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocess

Stylistics----linguisticsandliterature

Someotherapplications

AnthropologicallinguisticsNeurolinguistics神经

Computationallinguistics（e.g.machinetranslation）

Experimental,philosophical,historical,clinical病理,discourse话语,external&internallinguistics

4.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

Descriptivevsprescriptive

Descriptive描写

----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse（modernlinguistics）eg.Peopledo\don’tsay….Thesunrisesfromtheeast.

Prescriptive规定----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguagei.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotdo.（traditionalgrammar）eg.Do\Don’tsay….Youshouldobeytherule.Linguisticstudiesbefore20thcenturyarelargelyprescriptiveinthesensethatmanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”（literary,religious）writtenlanguage.

Synchronicvsdiachronic

Synchronic共时study----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime（modernlinguistics）eg.thestudyofEnglishinShakespearetime.

Diachronic历时study----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime（historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime）

Speechvswriting

Thetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.

Speech----primarymediumoflanguage.Genetically,childrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.

Writing----laterdeveloped,learnedandtaughtlater.Withwriting,messagecanbecarriedthroughtime&space.

Languevsparole（F.deSaussure）

Langue语言theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.eg.Chinese

Parole话语----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.eg.varietiesofChinese

Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.社会惯例/法规,

Differencesbetweenthem:

L.isabstract;P.isspecifictothesituationinwhichitoccurs.

L.isnotactuallyspokenbyanyone;P.isalwaysanaturaloccurringevent.自然出现的语言事件

Lisrelativelystable&sys