现代语言学复习资料.docx

现代语言学复习资料.docx

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现代语言学复习资料

Chapter8：

Socio-linguistics

Defineorexplainthefollowingterms:

Sociolinguistics:

Thesubdisciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagevariationandlanguageuseinsocialcontext.

Speechcommunity:

Agroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity（whichmayhaveasfewmembersasafamilyorasmanymembersasacountry）,andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.

Speechvariety:

Alsoknownaslanguagevariety,referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.

Languageplanning:

Languagestandardizationisknownaslanguageplanning.Thismeansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystems,acrossregionalboundaries.

Idiolect:

Anidiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.（Inanarrowersense,whatmakesupone’sidiolectincludesalsosuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm,whichallcontributetotheidentifyingfeaturesinanindividual’sspeech.）

Standardlanguage:

Asuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.

Nonstandardlanguage:

Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandard,orvernacular,languages.

Linguafranca:

Avarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefromdiverselinguisticbackgrounds.Thetermlingualfrancacanbegeneralizedtorefertoanyotherlanguageusedasatradeorcommunicationmedium.Thus,anylanguagecanbeit.

Pidgin:

Amarginalcontactlanguagewithalimitedvocabularyandreducedgrammaticalstructures,usedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasameansofbusinesscommunication.

Creole:

Acreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasanativelanguageinsomespeechcommunity.Whenapidgincomestobeadoptedbyapopulationasitsprimarylanguage,andchildrenlearnitastheirfirstlanguage,thenthepidginlanguageiscalledacreole.

Diglossia:

AtermfirstintroducedbyFergusonin1959torefertoasociolinguisticsituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.

Bilingualism:

Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.Therearebilingualcommunitiesinwhichtheirmemberscommonlyusetwolanguagesintheirdailylives.

Domain使用域:

Domainreferstothephenomenonthatmostbilingualcommunitieshaveonethingincommon,thatis,afairlyclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituations.Forexample:

theHomeDomain,EmploymentDomainetc.

Code-switching:

Abilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagesalternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker,aspeechsituationknownascode-switching.

Ethnicdialect:

Anethniclanguagevarietyisasocialdialectofalanguage,oftencuttingacrossregionaldifferences.Anethnicdialectisspokenmainlybyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolation,suchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation.

Socialdialects（orsociolects）:

Varietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.

Register:

Registersarelanguagevarietiesappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituations,incontrasttolanguagevarietiesthatareassociatedwiththesocialorregionalgroupingoftheircustomaryusers.Forthatreason,registersarealsoknownassituationaldialects.

Addressterm:

Anaddressterm,oraddressform,referstothewordorwordsusedtoaddresssomebodyinspeechorwriting.

Slang:

Slangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.

Linguistictaboo:

Referstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.Obscene,profane,orswearwordsarealltaboowordsthataretobeavoidedentirely,oratleastavoidedinmixedcompany.

Euphemism:

Aeuphemismisamild,indirect,orlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.Forexample,wesay“portly”insteadof“fat”.Inmanycultures,peopleavoidusingdirectwordsthatpertaintodeathordying.

Whatarethedistinctionsbetweenbilingualismanddiglossia?

Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedinaspeechcommunity;whereasinadiglossiccommunity,twovarietiesoflanguageareusedfordifferentsituations,onebeingmorestandardandhigher,andusedformoreformalmatters,andtheotherlessprestigious,andusedforcolloquialsituations.

DiscusswithexamplessomeofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenStandardEnglishandBlackEnglish.（featuresofBlackEnglish）

OneofthemostprominentphonologicalcharacteristicsofBlackEnglishisthefrequentsimplificationofconsonantclustersattheendofwordswhenoneofthetwoconsonantsisanalveolar/t/,/d/,/s/,or/z/.Theapplicationofthissimplificationrulemaydeletethepast-tensemorpheme,so“past“and“passed“arebothpronouncedlike“pass.”

AnothersalientcharacteristicofBlackEnglishphonologicalsystemconcernsthedeletionofsomeword-finalstopconsonantsinwordslike“side”and“borrowed.”SpeakersofBlackEnglishfrequentlydeletetheseword-finalstops,pronouncing“side”like“sigh”and“borrowed”like“borrow.”

Oneprominentsyntacticfeatureisthefrequentabsenceofvariousformsofthecopula“be”inBlackEnglish,whicharerequiredofStandardEnglish.ComparethefollowingexpressionsinBlackEnglishandStandardEnglish:

（1）BlackEnglishStandardEnglish

Theymine.They’remine.

Youcrazy.Yourecrazy.

AnotherdistinctivesyntacticfeatureofBlackEnglishisthesystematicuseoftheexpression“itis”whereStandardEnglishuses“thereis”inthesenseof“thereexists”:

IsitaMr.Johnsoninthisoffice?

AnotheraspectofBlackEnglishistheuseofdoublenegationconstructions.Whenevertheverbisnegated,theindefinitepronouns“something”,“somebody”,and“some”becomethenegativeindefinites“nothing”,“nobody”,and“none”,forexample:

Hedon’tknownothing.（Hedoesn’tknowanything.）

Listseveralwaysinwhichthespeechofwomenandthespeechofmendifferfromeachother.（理解）

Womentendtousemoreprestigiousforms,morepoliteandindirectlanguage,andmorespecificcolortermsthantheirmalecounterparts.Femalesarefoundtousemorequestionsthandeclarativestatementsincomparisonwithmales.

展开：

1）Innormalsituations,femalespeakerstendtousemoreprestigiousformsthantheirmalecounterpartswiththesamegeneralsocialbackground.Forexample,standardEnglishformssuchas“Ididit”and“heisn’t”canbefoundmoreofteninthespeechoffemales,whilethemorecolloquial“Idoneit”and“heain’t”occurmorefrequentlyinthespeechofmales.

2）Anotherfeatureoftenassociatedwithso-calledwomen’slanguageispoliteness.Usually,toughandroughspeecheshaveconnotationsofmasculinityandarenotconsideredtobedesirablefemininequalities.Ingeneral,men’slanguageismorestraightforward,lesspolite,andmoredirect,andwomen’slanguageismoreindirect,lessblunt,andmorecircumlocutory.

3）Thisphenomenonofsex-preferentialdifferentiationisalsoreflectedintherelativefrequencywithwhichmalesandfemalesusethesamelexicalitems.Forexample,certainwordsthatarecloselyassociatedwithwomenmaysoundtypicallyfeminineasaresultofthatassociation.Forexample,someEnglishadjectiveslike“lovely”,”nice”,”darling”and“cute”occurmoreofteninfemalespeechesandthereforecausefeminineassociation.

4）Femaleshavealsobeenshowntopossessagreatervarietyofspecificcolortermsthanmales,inspiteofthefactthatmendonotnecessarilypossesslessacutecolorperceptionthanwomen.Ontheotherhand,maleshavethereputationofpossessingalargervocabularyintraditionallymale-dominateddomainssuchassports,huntingandthemilitary.

5）Sex-preferentialdifferentiationisalsoseeninthespeechactsofmalesandfemales.ArequestinEnglishsuchas“Closethedoorwhenyouleave”canbephrasedinanumberofwaysrangingfromaharshcommandtoaverypoliterequest:

a.Closethedoorwhenyouleave.

b.Pleaseclosethedoorwhenyouleave.

c.Wouldyoupleaseclosethedoorwhenyouleave?

d.Couldyouclosethedoorwhenyouleave?

Althoughtheaboveoptionsareallavailabletobothmenandwomen,itisusuallythemorepoliteformsthatareselectedbyfemalespeakers.Ingeneral,femalesarefoundtousemorequestionsthandeclarativestatementsincomparisonwithmales.

Thefollowingwordsareconsideredinstances（实例）ofsexistlanguage.Findalternativestothesemasculine-markedwords:

businessman→businessexecutive

cleaningwoman→housekeeper

forefather→ancestorhousewife→homemaker

kinsman→relativelayman→nonspecialist

spokesman→speaker,representative

statesman→leaderstewardess→flightattendant

workmanship→skilledjob,qualityjob

mankind→peoplemanp