Learner Autonomy and Learning Strategies in EFL Learning.docx
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LearnerAutonomyandLearningStrategiesinEFLLearning
LearnerAutonomyandLearningStrategiesinEFLLearning
Abstract:
AutonomyisoneofthegoalsofEFLteaching.Andstrategytrainingisanimportantapproachtodevelopingautonomy.Thispaperbrieflyreviewsthetheoriesandresearchesonlearningstrategies,includingthedefinitions,classificationsofthelearningstrategies,andhowtoprepareforandimplementstrategytraining.
Keywords:
autonomylearningstrategystrategytraining
ⅠAutonomyinlanguagelearning
Theresearchonautonomyhaslongbeenconductedinvariousfieldslikepsychology,educationreform,andpoliticalphilosophyetc.ModernresearchandpracticeonautonomyinthefieldoflanguageeducationbeganwiththeestablishmentofCentredeRecherchesetd'ApplicationsenLangues(CRAPEL)attheUniversityofNancy,France,whichaimedinitiallytoadvocatelifelonglearningforadults.Holec(1981:
3),aleadingfigurewithinthisfield,definesautonomyastheabilitytotakechargeofone'sownlearning.Focusingonthecharacteristicsofautonomouslanguagelearners,GardnerandMillerdefineautonomouslanguagelearnersasthosewhoinitiatetheplanningandimplementationoftheirownlearningprogram'(GardnerandMiller1999:
6).PhilBenson(2001:
47)statesthatautonomyisamultidimensionalcapacitythatwilltakedifferentformsfordifferentindividuals,andevenforthesameindividualindifferentcontextsoratdifferenttimes.Nevertheless,thekeyideaemergingfromthesedefinitionsislearner'scontroloverthewholelearningprocess.Asanattributeandcapacityofthelearner,autonomyisnotonlyreflectedinlearningbehaviors,butalsorepresentslearners'beliefofindependence.Theyshouldbefreedfromthecompletedependenceonteachersandeducationalinstitutions.Theyneedtodevelopthecapacityofmakingdecisionsandtakingactionsconcerninglanguagelearning.Toreachthegoalofautonomy,theyneedtobeprovidedwiththeknowledgeandtheopportunitiesofpracticesonhowtolearn,howtoexerciseself-control,andhowtodeveloptheirlearningpotentials.
ⅡLearningstrategies
1.Definitions
Variousapproacheshavebeenadoptedandresearchedtofosterlearnerautonomyandhelplearnersbecomebetterlanguagelearners.Benson(2001)makesasummaryofapproachestothedevelopmentofautonomyincludingresource,technology,learner,classroom,curriculumandteacher-basedapproaches.Learner-basedapproachesfocusdirectlyontheproductionofbehavioralandpsychologicalchangesthatwillenablelearnerstotakegreatercontrolovertheirlearning(Benson,2001:
142).Theymainlyconsistoflearningstrategiesandstrategytraining.Wenden(1991)researchestherelationshipbetweenlearningstrategiesandautonomy.Hebelievesthatlearnerswhohaveacquiredthelearningstrategies,theknowledgeaboutlearning,andtheattitudesthatenablethemtousetheseskillsandknowledgeconfidently,flexibly,appropriatelyandindependentlyofateacher,areautonomous(Wenden,1991:
15).
Researchershavedefinedlearnerstrategyfromdifferentperspectives.ForexampleOxford(1990:
8)defineslearningstrategiesasspecificactionstakenbythelearnertomakelearningeasier,faster,moreenjoyable,moreself-directed,andmoretransferabletonewsituations.Herdefinitionfocusesontheoutcomesoflearningprocess.Willing's(1988:
7)definitionscentersonspecificprocedures,statingthatlearningstrategyisaspecificmentalprocedureforgathering,processing,associating,categorizing,rehearsingandretrievinginformationofpatternedskills.Cohen(1990:
5)defineslearningstrategiesaslearningprocesseswhichareconsciouslyselectedbythelearner,drawingattentiontothelearner'schoiceinlearningprocess.Thecommoncharacteristicofdifferentwaysofdefininglearnerstrategyisthatthehigherefficiencyoflanguagelearningandusingprocessisemphasized.
2.Classificationsoflearningstrategies
Intermsofstrategyclassification,sinceresearchershavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagelearningprocess,differentschemeshavebeenproposed.O'malleyandChamot(1985)firstdividedlearningstrategiesintothreecategoriesofmetacognitive,cognitive,andsocial.ThisclassificationhasbeenwidelyadoptedbyotherresearcherssuchasOxford(1990)andCohen(1998).
Metacognitivestrategiesmainlyconcerntheknowledgeaboutlearning,forexamplehowtomakeplans,setandadjustlearninggoals,monitorlanguageinputandoutputprocess,andevaluateandreflectonlearningperformance.
Cognitivestrategiesareadoptedbylearnerstodealwithspecificlearningactivities,whichincludehowtoidentify,retain,retrieveandusethenecessarylanguagematerial(e.g.concentratingonlearningtasks,guessingthemeaningofunfamiliarwordbywayofcontext,usingvisualimageryforbetterunderstandingoflanguagematerial,andusinginductiveanddeductivereasoning).
Affectivestrategieswillhelplearnersviewthemselvespositively.Withthesestrategies,learnerscanregulatetheiremotions,motivations,andattitudes.Theycanaswellreduceanxietyandbecomeself-encouraged.(e.g.buildingconfidenceinlearningaforeignlanguage,avoidingshynessandanxietyinlearningprocess,andofferinghelptootherlearners).
Socialstrategieshelplearnersmanagetherelationshipwithotherlearners,teachersandnativespeakers(e.g.askingforclarificationandverification,cooperatingwithotherlearners,anddevelopingawarenessofculturaldifferences).
CohenandWeaver(2006:
33-34)presentclassificationsofstrategiesbygoal,skills,andfunction.Fromtheperspectiveofgoal,theyholdthatstrategiesfallintogroupsoflanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusestrategies.Intheformergroup,therecanbearangeofstrategieslikeidentifying,distinguishing,groupingthelanguagematerial,practicingmaterialthroughparticipationinclassroomactivitiesandhomework,andcommittingthematerialtomemory.Inthelattergroup,therearefoursubsets:
retrievalstrategiesaretheconsciousprocessesthatlearnersusetocalluplanguagematerialfromstorage;rehearsalstrategiesareconsciousprocessesforpracticingtargetlanguagestructuresbeforeusingthem;communicationstrategiesareconsciousprocessesusedbylearnerstoconveyamessagethatisbothmeaningfulandinformativeforthelistenerorreaderwhentheydon’thaveallthelanguagetheyneed;covertstrategiesareconsciousprocessesthatlearnersusetocreateanappearanceoflanguageabilitysoasnottolookunprepared,foolish,orevenstupid.
ⅢPreparationsforstrategytraining
1.Raisingstudents'awarenessofthesignificanceofstrategytraining
Tofulfillanytask,thegoalandthesignificancemustbemadeclearbecauseanyhumanactivityispurposeful,andnobodywillshowinterestorinitiativeiftheybelievethetaskismerelyawasteoftime.Thus,beforeimplementingstrategytraining,learnersshouldfirstbeinformedaboutthesignificanceoflearningstrategies.Cohen(1998:
69)believesthatthegoalofstrategytrainingistoexplicitlyteachstudentshow,whenandwhystrategiescanbeusedtofacilitatetheireffortsatlearningandusingaforeignlanguage.Withstrategytraining,studentscanlearnthetargetlanguageinamoreeffectivewayandtheycanalsobeencouragedtoself-evaluateandself-directtheirlearning.Thekeytostrategytrainingliesinlearnersthemselves,andonlyifthelearnersactivelyandattentivelytakepartinthetraining,cantheyreallyreapthebenefitsfromthestrategies.
2.Investigatinglearnerstrategies
Beforetrainingstudentsonstrategies,teachersneedtofindouthowmuchthestudentshavealreadyknownaboutlearningstrategies,andtowhatextenttheyhaveusedthestrategiesinlanguagelearningandusingprocesses.Tomakethestrategytrainingwelltargetedandtomeetaparticulargroupofstudents'needs,teachersarestronglyadvisedtogathertheinformationonstudents'learningstrategiesbeforecarryingoutstrategytraining.Oxford's(1990)StrategyInventoryforLanguageLearning(SILL)isatypicalandfrequentlyadoptedquestionnaireforassessinglanguagelearningstrategies.Cohen(1998:
27-49)proposessixapproaches:
oralinterviewsandwrittenquestionnaires,observation,verbalreport,diariesanddialogjournals,recollectivestudies,andcomputertracking.ChengandZheng(2002:
137-138)layoutfouraspectsthatadiagnosisoflanguagelearningstrategiesshouldcover:
makingachecklistoftheeffectivestrategiesthathavebeengraspedbylearners,conductingasurveyonstudents'negativestrategies(e.g.rotelearningofvocabulary),investigatingthefrequencywithwhichstudentsapplythelearningstrategies,andlookingintotheconnectionbetweentheuseofstrategiesandstudents'academicachievements.
3.Selectinglearningstrategies
Teachersneedtomakeananalysisofthedataobtainedfromtheinvestigationoflearningstrategiesandmakedecisionsonthechoiceofthestrategiestobetaught.Thoughnumerousstrategiesavebeenidentified,it'simpracticalandimpossibleforteacherstointroduceallofthemtostudents.Inthepreviouspart,theinvestigationsintothefactorsthatinfluencelearnerstrategieshavebeenmentioned,forexamplethecharacteristics,learningstyles,ageandgenderofthelearner,differentlearningmotivations,variousculturalbackgroundsetc.Teachershavetosiftthestrategiesandtheseinfluencingfactorstomakethemmatchoneanother.Andifthesizeoftheclassislarge,thenitshouldbemadesurethattheneedsofthemajorityofstudentsaretobemet.Thestrategyselectionalsodependson