期末语法复习资料.docx

期末语法复习资料.docx

《期末语法复习资料.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《期末语法复习资料.docx（10页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

期末语法复习资料

GrammarOutlineforFinalExam,2010

Grammaristhestructuralsystemofalanguage.ThegrammaroftheEnglishlanguageisorganizedintofiveranks:

thesentence,theclause,thephrase,thewordandthemorpheme.Eachrankiscomposedofoneormorethanonegrammaticalunitoftheimmediatelowerrank.Thusthesentenceisagrammaticalunitthatconsistsofoneormorethanoneclause;theclause,oneormorethanonephrase;thephrase,oneormorethanoneword;andtheword,oneormorethanonemorpheme.Thesentenceisthehighestrankofgrammaticalunitwhilethemorphemeistheminimumorthelowestrank.Afullsentencecangenerallybesegmentedrankbyrankdowntoitssmallestconstituents—themorphemes.

0.1Morphemes.Themorphemeistheminimumorsmallestgrammaticalunit,alsothesmallestmeaningfulelementofspeech.Morphemesfallintotwocategories:

freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.

0.2Words.Thewordiscomposedofoneormorethanonemorpheme.Wordscanbeclassifiedintwoways:

0.3Phrases.Thephraseiscomposedofoneormorethanoneword.Generally,thephraseisagroupofwordsorganizedinaspecificwaywithakeywordsasitshead.Thewordclassoftheheaddeterminestheclassofthephraseandthewayinwhichthewordsareorganized.

0.4Clauses.Theclauseiscomposedofoneormorethanonephrase.Afull-fledgedclauseisstructurallyasequenceofphrasesandlogicallyaconstructionof"subject+predicate".

1）Independentanddependentclauses.

2）Simpleandcomplexclauses.

3）Mainandsubordinateclauses.

4）Finiteandnon-finiteclauses.

5）Verblessclauses.

0.5Sentences.Thesentenceisthehighestrankofgrammaticalunit.Basedononeormorethanoneclause,thesentenceisalsothebasiclinguisticunitofconnecteddiscourse;itcanstandaloneandperformafunctioninsocialcommunication.Thus,asentencecanbedefinedasagrammaticalunitthatcanstandbyitselfandperformacommunicativefunction.

1）Fullandminorsentences.

2）Simple,compound,complexandcompound-complexsentences

LectureOneSentenceStructure

Owingtothefactthatsentencesinauthenticlanguagedifferstructurallyinthousandsofways,whatisdescribedhereassentencestructure,sentenceelements,orsentencepatternsisonlyconcernedwiththesimplesentence,orratherwiththeclause.

1.1Clauseelements.

1）Subjectandpredicate.

2）Twowaysofsentenceanalysis.TofacilitatedescriptionofhowtheEnglishlanguageworks,sentencescanbeanalysedintwoways.Onewayistodividethepredicateintopredicateverb,object,complementandadverbial.Theseelementstogetherwiththesubjectmakethefiveclauseelements.Theotherwayofsentenceanalysisistodividethepredicateintotwoparts:

theoperatorandthepredication.Theoperatorisusuallytheauxiliaryorthefirstauxiliaryinacomplexverbphrase,whilethepredicationcomprisesthemainverbwithitscomplementation（object,complementoradverbial）.

1.2Basicclausetypes

1）Basicclausetypes.ThesevenbasicclausetypesareSVC,SV,SVA,SVO,SVGA,SVOC,SVoO.

LectureTwoSubject-verbConcord（I）

Bysubject-verbconcordismeantagreementbetweensubjectandpredicateverbinnumber.

2.1Guidingprinciples.

1）Grammaticalconcord.

2）Notionalconcord.

3）Proximity.

LectureFourNounandNounPhrase

Ashasbeenpointedout,thenounphraseisaphrasewithanounasitshead.Itisthenounheadthatdeterminesthewaythenounphraseisorganized.

4.1Classificationofnounsandfunctionofnounphrases

1）Classificationofnouns

Nounscanbeclassifiedaccordingtowordformation,lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalform.

a）Simple,compoundandderivativenouns

Accordingtowordformation,nounscanbedividedintosimple,compoundandderivativenouns.

b）Properandcommonnouns

Accordingtolexicalmeaning,nounsfallintotwomajorcategories.propernounsandcommonnouns.

c）Countandnoncountnouns

Accordingtogrammaticalform,nounscanbedividedintotwoclasses:

countnounsandnoncountnouns.

2）Functionofnounphrases

Thenounphrasecanfunctionasalltheelementsinasentenceexceptthepredicate

4.3Partitives

Partitives,alsocalledunitnouns,arecommonlyusedtodenoteapartofawholeorthequantityofanundifferentiatedmass.

LectureFiveGenitiveNoun

CASEisagrammaticalcategory.Itdenotesthechangesintheformofanounorapronounshowingitsrelationshipwithotherwordsinasentence.

5.2Independentgenitiveanddoublegenitive

1）Independentgenitive

Ashasbeenmentionedintheprevioussection,agenitivenouncansometimesbeusedindependently,thatis,withoutafollowingnoun.

2）Doublegenitive

Anindependentgenitivecansometimesbeusedasprepositionalcomplementation（traditionallyknownasprepositional"object"）.Theprepositionalphrase（usuallyanof-phrase）thattakesanindependentgenitiveascomplementationiscalleda"doublegenitive",eg:

Heisafriendofmyfather's.﹦Heisoneofmyfather'sfriends.

Thisisapaintingofmyroommate's.﹦Thisisoneofthepaintingsownedbymyroommate.

LectureSixDeterminers（I）

Wordsthatprecedeanypremodifyingadjectivesinanounphraseandwhichdenotesuchreferentialmeaningsasspecificreference,genericreference,definitequantityorindefinitequantityarereferredtoasdeterminers.

Determiners,asaclassofwords,include:

articles（definitearticle,indefinitearticle,zeroarticle）,possessivedeterminers,genitivenouns,demonstrativedeterminers,relativedeterminers,interrogativedeterminers,indefinitedeterminers,cardinalandordinalnumerals,fractionalandmutiplicativenumerals,andotherquantifiers.

Theheadofanounphraselimitsthechoiceofdeterminers,andwhenmorethanonedetermineroccursinthenounphrase,thereistheproblemofwordorderbetweendeterminers.

6.2Collocationsbetweendeterminers

Ashasbeenmentionedbefore,besidesthecollocationsbetweendeterminersandnouns,thereistheproblemofwordorderbetweendeterminersifanounphrasecontainsmorethanonedeterminer.

1）Centraldeterminers,predeterminersandpostdeterminers

LectureSevenDeterminers（II）—Articles

Englishhastwoarticles:

thedefiniteandtheindefinitearticle.theabsenceofanarticlesignalsthepresenceofanotherkindofarticle—thezeroarticle.ItisinthissensethatwemayalsosaythatEnglishhasthreearticles—thedefinite,theindefinite,andthezeroarticle.

7.1Genericandspecificreference

Indiscussingtheuseofarticles,wemustdistinguishbetweengenericandspecificreference.

1）Genericreference

Whenwesaythereferenceisgeneric,wearetalkingaboutanymemberrepresentativeofaclassofpeopleorthings.Allthethreeformsofarticle（the,a（n）,andzero）canbeusedgenericallytorefertothemembersofaclassasawhole.

2）Specificreference

Specificreferenceisdifferentfromgenericreferenceinthatitdoesnotrefertoaclassofpeopleorthingsingeneralbuttoaparticularspecimenoftheclass.Specificreferencefallsintotwokinds:

definitespecificreferenceandindefinitespecificreference.

3）Anaphoric,cataphoricandsituationalreference

Definitespecificreferencecanbeanaphoric,cataphoric,orsituational.Thewordanaphoricmeans"pointingbackward".Whenwhatisreferredtooccursinapreviouscontextandthedefinitearticlehastopointbackwardforitsmeaning,thisisknownas"anaphoricreference".Hiscarstruckatree;youcanstillseethemarkonthetree.

Thewordcataphoricmeans"pointingforward".Whenthereferentialmeaningofthedefinitearticleisdeterminedbywhatfollowsthearticleandthehead,andthearticlehastopointforwardforitsowninterpretation,thatiscataphoricreference.

Situationalreferenceisakindofdefinitespecificreferencethatdependsnotonanyreferentthathasoccurredinthecontextbutsolelyonthecommonknowledgesharedbyspeakerandheareroronaspecificsituationinwhichthereferenceismadeclear.

LectureeightPronouns（I）

Pronounsarevariedclosed-classwordswithnominalfunction.Englishhasadevelopedpronounsystem,comprisingpersonalpronouns,possessivepronouns,reflexivepronouns,reciprocalpronouns,demonstrativepronouns,interrogativepronouns,relativepronouns,andindefinitepronouns.Thepresentlecturewilldealwiththeconcordofpronouns（andcorrespondingdeterminers）withtheirantecedentsinnumber,genderandperson.

Lecture9Pronouns

Thislecturewilldealwithsomeotherproblemsintheuseofpronouns:

chieflythechoiceofpronouncaseforms,theuseofpossessivepronounsandreflexivepronouns,thegenericuseofpersonalpronouns,andsomeproblemsconcerningpronounreference.,

9.1Choiceofpronouncaseforms

9.3Pronounreference

Pronounreferenceisakindofreferencerealizedthroughtheuseofpronouns.Whenapronounisused,itmustrefertosomebodyorsomething.Whatisreferredtoiscalledreferentorantecedent.Itistheantecedentthatindicatesthereferentialmeaningofthepronoun.

1）Anaphoric,cataphoricandsituationalreference

Accordingtotherelativepositionofthereferentorantecedent,pronounreferencecanbeanaphoricorcataphoric.Whentheantecedentoccursbeforethepronoun,whichhastopointbackwardforitsowninterpretation,thatisanaphoricreference;iftheantecedentappearsafterthepronoun,andthepronounhastopointforwardforitsmeaning,thatiscataphoricreference.Iftheantecedentdoesnotoccuranywhereinalinguisticcontext,andthepronounonlyreferstosomebodyorsomethingindicatedbyanextralinguisticsituationinwhichtheutteranceisgiven,thatissituationalreference.

2）Personal