语言学Chapter 4.docx

语言学Chapter 4.docx

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语言学Chapter4

Chapter4Syntax

A

4.1Syntax

—Thedefinitionofsyntax

—Approachestothestudyofsentences

-Thetraditionalapproach

-Thestructuralapproach

-Thegenerativeapproach

-Thefunctionalapproach

4.2Categories

4.2.1Word-levelcategories

—Thedefinitionofsyntacticcategories

—Twokindsofword-levelcategories

-Majorlexicalcategories

‐Noun（N）

‐Verb（V）

‐Adjective（A）

‐Preposition（P）

-Minorlexicalcategories

‐Determiner（Det）

‐Degreewords（Deg）

‐Qualifier（Qual）,Auxiliary（Aux）

‐Conjunction（Con）

‐Complementizer（C）

4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures

—Thedefinitionofphrase

—Phrasalcategories

-Nounphrase（NP）

-Verbphrase（VP）

-Adjectivephrase（AP）

-Prepositionalphrase（PP）

—Theelementsofphrases

-Head

-Specifier

-Complement

4.3Phrasestructurerule

—Thedefinitionofphrasestructurerules

—ThephrasestructureruleforNP,VP,AP,PP

-

NP（Det）N（PP）...

-

VP（Qual）V（NP）...

-

AP（Deg）A（PP）...

-

PP（Deg）P（NP）...

4.3.1XPrule

TheXPrule:

XP（specifier）X（complement）

4.3.2Coordinationrule

—Thedefinitionofcoordinatestructures

—

Thecoordinationrule:

XX*ConX

4.4Phraseelements

4.4.1Specifiers

4.4.2Complements

TheXPRule（revised）XP（Specifier）X（Complement*）

—Complementizer

—Complementclause

—Complementphrase（CP）

—Matrixclause

4.4.3Modifiers

TheExpendedXPrule:

XP（Spec）（Mod）X（Complement*）（Mod）

4.5Sentences（TheSRule）

TheSrule:

S

NPVP

4.6Transformations

—Deepstructure（D-structure）andsurfacestructure（S-structure）

—Sometransformationrules

-Auxiliarymovement

-Doinsertion

‐Doinsertionrule:

InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition

-Whmovement

‐WhMovement:

Movethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence

‐Whmovement（revised）:

MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP

-Moveαandconstraintsontransformations

Introductionofalinguist----LeonardBloomfiel

LeonardBloomfield（April1,1887—April18,1949）wasanAmericanlinguistwholedthedevelopmentofstructurallinguisticsintheUnitedStatesduringthe1930sandthe1940s.HisinfluentialtextbookLanguage,publishedin1933,presentedacomprehensivedescriptionofAmericanstructurallinguistics.HemadesignificantcontributionstoIndo-Europeanhistoricallinguistics,thedescriptionofAustronesianlanguagesanddescriptionoflanguagesoftheAlgonquianfamily.

Bloomfield’sapproachtolinguisticswascharacterizedbyitsemphasisonthescientificbasisoflinguistics,adherencetobehaviorismespeciallyinhislaterworkandemphasisonformalproceduresfortheanalysisoflinguisticdata.TheinfluenceofBloomfieldianstructurallinguisticsdeclinedinthelate1950sand1960sasthetheoryofGenerativeGrammardevelopedbyNoamChomskycametopredominate.

ImmediateconstituentanalysisorICanalysisisamethodofsentenceanalysisthatwasfirstmentionedbyLeonardBloomfieldanddevelopedfurtherbyRulonWells.TheprocessreachedafullblownstrategyforanalyzingsentencestructureintheearlyworksofNoamChomsky.Thepracticeisnowwidespread.MosttreestructuresemployedtorepresentthesyntacticstructureofsentencesareproductsofsomeformofIC-analysis.TheprocessandresultofIC-analysiscan,however,varygreatlybaseduponwhetheronechoosestheconstituencyrelationofphrasestructuregrammars（=constituencygrammars）orthedependencyrelationofdependencygrammarsastheunderlyingprinciplethatorganizesconstituentsintohierarchicalstructures.

ICAnalysisreferstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.

Immediateconstituents:

thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.

Ultimateconstituent:

thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.

B

4.1Syntax

Syntax:

abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

Thetraditionalapproachtakesasentenceasasequenceofwords.Itstudiessentenceformationbystudyingwordsintermsofcategoriesandtheirinterrelationships.

Thestructuralapproachregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure（system）,notasisolatedbits.Thisapproachtogrammar,basedonSaussure’sideasoflanguage,studiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenwords.

Thegenerativeapproachismainlyreferredtotransformational-generativegrammarproposedbyNoamChomsky.Chomskyproposesthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework.

Thefunctionalapproachoffersanalternativetostructuralism（formalism）.Systemic-functionalapproachstartsfromclauseandextendsitselftodiscourse.Itinvolveswhatlanguagecanshow（ideationalfunction）,whatkindofrelationcanitestablish（interpersonalfunction）,andinwhatway（textualfunction）.

4.2Categories

Category:

agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.

Syntacticcategory（句法范畴）：

refer to the linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations,whichcangenerallysubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.

Wordlevelcategorycanbedividedintotwokinds:

majorlexicalcategoriesandminorlexicalcategories.

Majorlexicalcategories（实义语类）：

Noun,Verb,AdjectiveandPreposition

Minorlexicalcategories（功能语类）：

Determiner（Det）限定词:

the,a,this,those

Degreewords（Deg）表程度:

quite,very,more,so

Qualifier（Qual）表频率:

often,always,seldom,almost

Auxiliary（Aux）助动词:

can,will,do,do,be,have

Conjunction（Conj）连词:

and,or,but

Complementizer（C）补语化成分:

that,if,for,whether

Phraseisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.

4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures

Phrasalcategories

Nounphrase（NP）:

theprettygirl

Verbphrase（VP）:

oftendream

Adjectivephrase（AP）:

verypessimistic

Prepositionalphrase（PP）:

mainlyabout

Phrasesareusuallycontainthefollowingelements:

Head,SpecifierandComplement.

Thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedistermedhead

Thewordontheleftsideoftheheadissaidtofunctionasspecifier

Thewordontherightsideoftheheadiscomplement.

4.3Phrasestructurerule

Phrasestructurerule:

grammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase.

-

NP（Det）N（PP）...

-

VP（Qual）V（NP）...

-

AP（Deg）A（PP）...

-

PP（Deg）P（NP）...

NPcanconsistofadeterminer（Det）,anNheadandaPPcomplement,

forinstance:

thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls

VPcanbecomposedofaqualifier,aVandanNPcomplement,

forinstance:

alwaysplaygames,finishassignments

APcanbecomposedofadegreeword,aAandaPPcomplement

forinstance:

veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,verycloseto

PPcanconsistofadegreeword,aPandanNPcomplement,

forinstance:

ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation

TheXPrule:

XP（specifier）X（complement）

Coordinationrule:

Coordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.

Thecoordinationrule:

XX*ConX

4.4Phraseelements

Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizers（shortenedasCs）

Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizersiscalledacomplementclause.

Sentencecomplementiscalledcomplementphrase（shortenedasCP）

Theconstructioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.

ModifiersinEnglishvaryintermsoftheirpositionwithrespecttothehead.

XP（specifier）（Mod）X（complement*）（Mod）

Thenewruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforeorafterthehead.

Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthatoccursaftertheheadwilloccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.

E.g.,acarefulgirl,readcarefully,readabookcarefully,openthecanwithcare

4.5Sentences（TheSRule）:

AsentencecombinesanNP（oftencalledthesubject）withaVP.

Linguiststakeanabstractcategoryinflectionasasentence’shead.InflectiontakesanNP（thesubject）asitsspecifierandaVPcategoryasitscomplement.

Inflp（=S）：

NP+Infl+VP

ICAnalysis（直接成分分析法）:

referstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.

Immediateconstituents（直接成分）:

thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.

Ultimateconstituent（最终成分）:

thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.

4.6Transformations

Inversion:

moveinflectiontotheleftofthesubjectNP,forinstance,

Thetrainwillarrive--------Willthetrainarrive?

Doinsertion:

insertinterrogativedointoanemptyinflectionposition,forinstance,

Birdsfly--------birdsdofly

Aftertheauxiliarydoisinsertedintotheinflectionposition,theinversiontransformationcanbemadebymovingtheinterrogativedointotheCposition.

Birdsdofly-----Dobirdsfly?

DeepstructureisformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties.

Surfacestructurecorrespondstothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformation.

C

ThischapterisaboutSyntax.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.（Accordingtothetextbook）

Asforrules,thesequenceofwordsinformingthesentencesisalsoanimportantpartofsyntax.ThisbookmainlyfocusesonEnglishsyntax.Andthes