Victory of the Common School Movement.docx

Victory of the Common School Movement.docx

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VictoryoftheCommonSchoolMovement

VictoryoftheCommonSchoolMovement

AturningpointinAmericaneducationalhistory

03April2008

GeorgeWashington,ConstitutionalConvention,1787.（VirginiaMuseumofFineArts,Richmond.GiftofEdgarWilliam,BerniceGarbisch）

（ThefollowingarticlebyCarlF.KaestleistakenfromtheU.S.DepartmentofStatepublication,HistoriansonAmerica.）

VictoryoftheCommonSchoolMovement:

ATurningPointinAmericanEducationalHistory

ByCarlF.Kaestle

Americanstodaycountontheirpublicschoolstobefreeofexpense,opentoall,anddevoidofreligioussectarianism.AlthoughfamiliesarepermittedtoenrolltheirchildreninprivateschoolsattheirownexpenseintheUnitedStates,thepercentageofprivateschoolstudentshasbeenstableatabout10-12percentforhalfacentury.Thegreatmajorityofstudentsattendpublicschools,fromthefirsttothetwelfthyearofschooling,thefulfillmentofacrucialpolicydecisionmadeineachindividualstateinthenorthernpartofthecountryinthe1840s,andinthesouthernstatesinthelate19thcentury.Itwascalled"theCommonSchoolMovement."

FreeschoolsopentoallchildrendidnotexistincolonialAmerica.Yet,somethinglikemodernAmericanpublicschoolsdevelopedinthe1840s,whenamajorityofvotersinthenorthernregionsoftheUnitedStatesdecidedthatitwouldbewisetocreatestate-mandatedandlocallycontrolledfreeschools.Oncethismodelofschoolingprevailed,thestagewassetforthecreationofaninclusivefree-schoolsystemintheUnitedStates.

IntheBritishcoloniesofthe17thand18thcenturies,schoolingwasnotcompulsory,notfreeofcharge,notsecular,notopentoall,andnotevencentraltomostchildren'seducation.Decisionsabouttheprovisionofschoolsweremadetown-by-town.Girlswereoftenexcluded,orallowedtoattendonlythelower-levelschools,andsometimesatdifferenthoursfromtheboys.Inmosttowns,parentshadtopaypartofthetuitiontogettheiryoungeducated.ThesebarrierstotheeducationofallcharacterizedtheNewEnglandcoloniesintheNortheastaswellasthoseinthemiddle-AtlanticandtheSouth.InthosesectionsofNorthAmericathatwerethengovernedbySpainorFrance,evenlesswasdoneforeducation.ChristianmissionariesmadeintermittenteffortstoevangelizeNativeAmericansandAfricanAmericansthroughreligiouseducationacrossNorthAmerica;butschooling,whetherlocalorcontinental,wasnotprimarilyagovernmentalmatter.

TheReligiousRootsofColonialSchooling

However,inspiteofpatchwork,casualcustomsofschoolingthroughouttheBritishcolonies,therewasapushforliteracyamongmanycolonists,basedlargelyontheProtestantbeliefthatlaypeopleshouldlearntoreadtheBibleinthevernaculartongue（thatis,forBritishcolonists,inEnglish,ratherthanLatinorGreek）.Passingalawin1647fortheprovisionofschools,theMassachusettscoloniallegislaturecommentedthat"olddeluderSatan"hadkepttheBiblefromthepeopleinthetimesbeforetheProtestantReformation,butnowtheyshouldlearntoread.Thus,thelegislaturedecreed,townsofover50familiesshouldprovideaschool.Theydidnotspecifythattheeducationhadtobefree,nordidtheyrequireattendance.Thelawwasweaklyenforced.Ineffect,parentsdecidedwhethertosendtheirchildren;iftheydid,theyhadtopaypartorallofthecost;andreligionwaswithoutdoubtorquestionintertwinedwitheducationinthosedays.ThemostpopularschoolbookinBritishcolonialAmerica,TheNewEnglandPrimer,taughtchildrentheirABC'sthroughrhymedcouplets,beginningwith"InAdam'sFall,Wesinnedall,"andconcludingwith"ZaccheusheDidclimbtheTree,OurLordtosee."

Schoolsofferedbriefterms,perhapssixweeksinwinterandanothersixweeksinsummer,attendedmainlybyyoungchildrenwhowerenotworkinginthefields.Thesepracticesswayedtotherhythmsofagriculturalworkandthedeterminationofmosttownstoprovideonlymodestresourcesforschools.Formalschoolingwasmoreextensiveforatinyelite,asitwasinAmerica'sparentcountry,England.Inthecolonies,onlyafewboysofEuropeanancestrymightgoontomoreadvancedschoolsforEnglishgrammarandthen,foranevensmallernumber,tutoringinLatin,leadingtoHarvardCollege,orYale,orWilliamandMary.Themajorityoftheseprivilegedfewthenbecameministers,ratherthanleadersinsecularsociety.

Therestofthechildrenlearnedmostoftheirliteracy,adultroles,workskills,andtraditionsoutsideofschool,fromaconstellationofinstitutions,principallythehome,theworkplace,andthechurch.However,ascolonialsocietybecamemorehighlypopulated,morecomplex,andmorerivenbyfactioninthe18thcentury,competitionamongrivalProtestantdenominationsandquarrelsdevelopedoverreligiousdoctrine.Inaddition,politicalandfinancialissuesultimatelybroughtrelationsbetweenthecolonistsandtheEnglishhomelandtoabreakingpoint.Thus,theusesofliteracyforargumentation–bothinoralandwrittenform–grew.Andasagriculturebecamemorecommercialandefficient,itbroughtmorecashtransactions,morefocusonsinglecrops,andtheprospectofmoredistantmarkets,intothecountryside,reinforcingthevalueofliteracy.InthegrowingcoastaltownsofBoston,NewYork,Philadelphia,andCharleston,andinsomeinlandcenterslikeAlbanyandHartford,philanthropicgroupsandchurches,respondingtotheincreaseinpovertyanditsvisibility,establishedfreeschoolsforthemoraleducationofpoorchildren,onthemodelofEnglish"charity"schools.

TheCommonSchoolMovement

Giventhese18th-centurydynamics,onemighthaveexpectedthatwhenthecolonists'victoryoverBritishforcesintheAmericanRevolutionfinallyleftnewly-mintedAmericansfreetoestablishrepublicaninstitutionstotheirliking,schoolswouldhavebeenhighonthelist.Indeed,manyoftheRevolution'sleadersthoughttheyshouldbe–includingThomasJeffersonandBenjaminRush.JeffersonwrotefromFrancein1786,advisingafriendto"preachacrusadeagainstignorance,"andsupportfreeschoolsinVirginia.Rush,aPhiladelphiaphysicianandsigneroftheDeclarationofIndependence,proposedasimilarbillforfreeschoolsinPennsylvania.

LeadersofthismovementforstatesystemsofcommonschoolsintheearlynationalperiodcamefromboththeJeffersonianRepublicansandtheFederalists.Buttheireffortsfailedintheirstatelegislatures.Mostfreecitizens,itappears,thoughtthatthepatchworkcolonialmodeofeducationwasstillquitesufficient.Inparticular,Americanswerewaryofanyincreaseintaxes（whichhadbeenamajorpointofcontentionwithEngland）anddidnotwanttheirfledglingstategovernmentstomeddleinaffairsthathadalwaysbeenlocalmattersfortownsorfamiliestodecide.AfterJefferson'sbillforfreeschoolsintheVirginialegislaturehadfailedtwice,hecomplainedtohisfriendJoelBarlowin1807,"Thereisasnail-pacedgaitfortheadvanceofnewideasonthegeneralmind,underwhichwemustacquiesce."

Thus,inthecountryside,townsstilldecidedwhethertohaveaschool,andifso,howtofundit.Thecostwasusuallycoveredthroughsomecombinationoftaxesonallcitizensplustuitionfeesfortheparentsofchildrenwhoattended.Sometimesparentspaidbyprovidingfoodfortheteacherorfirewoodfortheschool,butusuallyitwascash.Parentalpaymentswerecalled"ratebills."Sometimestheschoolwouldbefreeforallchildrenforasetamountoftimeandthena"continuation"schoolwouldbeprovidedforthosewhoseparentswereabletopay.Thustheamountofschoolingachildreceivedwasinthelastanalysisdeterminedbywealth.Atmost,therewouldbeasingleschoolforeachtownordistrict.BlacksandIndiansingeneralreceivednoformalschoolingintheseinstitutions.Evenforwhitechildren,thetermswerebrief,theteachersoftenpoorlyeducated,andthebuildingsgenerallyinpoorcondition.Theruralschoolbecameafavoritetargetofschoolreformerslaterintheearly19thcentury.Michigan'ssuperintendent,JohnPierce,calledlittleruraldistricts"theparadiseofignorantteachers";anotherreportspokeofadistrictschoolbuildinginsuchbadrepairthat"eventhemicehaddesertedit."

TheMonitorialSchoolModel

Incities,thereweremoreopportunities.Eveninthe18thcenturyinurbanareas,therewereseveraldifferentkindsofschools,fundedindifferentwaysandwithdifferentlevelsoffinancialresources.Amodestamountof"charity"schoolingprovidedsomefreeinstructionforchildrenofpoorwhitesandofAfricanAmericans,oftensubsidizedbychurchesandbystateandlocalgovernment.SucheffortsresultedinAfricanFreeSchools,"infant"schoolsforthetwo-andthree-year-oldchildrenoftheindigent,andothertypesofsponsorship.Astimepassedandasconcerngrew,manycitiesinthenewRepublicexperimentedwithatypeofcharityschool,the"monitorial"school,whichbecamepopularinEngland,Europe,andLatinAmericainthe1810sand‘20s.InventedbyJosephLancaster,aQuakerschoolmasterinEngland,the"monitorial"schoolmodelencouragedmoreadvancedpupilstoteachthosewhowerelessadvanced.Lancasterwrotemanymanualsinhiseffortstopopularizethemethods.Lancasterattemptedtodefineappropriatedisciplineandtoprovidedetailedinstructionsforclassroomprocedures.Atatimewhenboyswereroutinelypaddledforschoolinfractions,advocatesapplaudedLancaster'sideasaboutmotivationwithoutcorporalpunishment,disciplinemotivatedbyanactivecurriculumandcompetition,neutralitywithregardtoreligiousdenominations,and,perhapsmostimportant,economyof