英语语言学实用基础重点.docx
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英语语言学实用基础重点
Unit1
families:
TheIndo-European:
English,Spanish,Portuguese,French,Italian,Russian,Greek,Hindi…印欧
TheUralic:
Hungarian,Finnish…乌拉尔
TheAltaic:
Korean,Japanese阿尔泰
TheSino-Tibetan:
Mandarin汉藏
TheMalayo-Polynesian:
Indonesian,Malay,Maori,Hawaiian马来-波利尼亚
TheAfro-Asiatic:
Arabic,Hebrew亚非
TheCaucasian:
Georgian,Chechen高加索
TheDravidian:
Tamil达罗毗图
Austro-Asiatic:
Vietnamese亚澳
Niger-Congo:
Zulu尼日尔-刚果
functionsoflanguage:
phatic(交际),directive,interrogative,expressive,evocative,performative,interpersonal,metalinguistic,recreational(humor…)
M.A.K.Halliday:
Identical,interpersonal,textual
Anutteranceincontextfulfilsthethreemetafunctionssimultaneously
interpersonal:
所有的形容词,大部分的副词,明显特殊褒贬意味的动词或名词,不说die表示不愿意提及,委婉语,标点反映情感,()为读者考虑,友好,“”反语,设问句、关联句使更容易理解,插图、表格辅助形式,1234小黑点,更清楚,字体字号,双语……
features
arbitrariness-任意性:
formandmeaning无关联
dualityofstructure,doublearticulation:
lowerlevel—meaninglesselements,higherlevel—meaningfulunits(words)
creativity(C.F.Hockett):
(productivity),constructionandinterpretationofnewsymbols,rule-governed
displacement-不受时空限制的特性:
canrefertoanythingabsentorpresent,constrainedneitherbytimenorbyspace
culturaltransmission-文化传播性:
notgeneticallyinherited,requiresomelearning
origin
bow-wow:
imitativeofsounds
pooh-pooh:
intenseemotions
ding-dong:
inresponsetoimpression,emittingappropriatevocalresponse
yo-he-ho:
underheavyexternalloads,emitnoisesfromone’svocaltract
ta-ta:
makegesturestocertainsituations,thetonguemightduplicatethemanualgestureandutterthesound
ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay:
ritualdanceandincantation
acquisitionoflanguage
mothertongue:
L1acquisition:
universallysuccessful,noexplicitinstruction,rapid(0-4yearsold),conditional(exposure,criticalperiod–1.5-4yearsold,nomentaldeficiency)
stages
babblingperiod:
birth-6months,producesounds
syllabicspeechperiod:
8months,syllablesreplacebabbledsounds
single-wordstage:
1yearold,firstwords,nogrammar,carryoutsimplecommands
onsetofspeech:
18months,3-50words
two-wordutterancestage:
2yearsold,namemostthingsaround,creationoftwo-wordphrases
full-understandingstage:
2.5yearsold
nearadult-speech:
3yearsold,overgeneralizationofinflections
adultspeech:
4yearsold
attention:
vocabularyacquisitionlaststhroughoutourlife
complicatedconstructionslikepassivesareacquiredlate(10yearsold)
appropriateuse(inaccordancewithsocialconvenience—politeness,andconversationalroutines)oflanguagecomeslater
communicativecompetence:
parentalinstructionisnecessary
unit2SoundsofEnglish
organs:
breathingorgans(lung,bronchialtubes,windpipe),larynx(喉),pharynx(咽),
speechsounds
vowelsandconsonants:
functionally:
basis,containatleastone
physically:
musical,consonantsarenoisy
articulatorily:
vowel:
airstreamnotobstructed,speechorgansaretense;consonants:
totallyorpartiallyobstructed
phonetics(providesmethodsforthedescription,classification,andtranscriptionofthespeechsounds--articulatory,acoustic,auditory)&phonology(音韵学)(patternsgoverningsoundcombinations—sequenceofphonemes音素)
sequentialrules:
1.s,2.p,t,k,3,l,r,w
possiblewordswithoutmeaning:
nonsensewords,lexicalgaps
phones,phonemes,allophones
phone(音素):
没有意义
phonemes(音位):
afamilyofsounds,phoneticallysimilar,slightlydifferent,minimalunitinthesoundsystemofalanguage,contrastiveinalanguage,distinctiveofmeaning,abstract,markedwith//
allophones:
predictablephoneticvariantsofthesamephonemes(t,th,tr,ts)
eachlanguagecanbeshowntooperatewitharelativelysmallnumberofphonemes(15-80),notwolanguageshavethesamephonemicsystem
classifyvowels
heightofthetongue—high,mid,low
positionofhighestpartoftongue–front,central,back
degreeoflip-rounding—rounded,unrounded
lengthofarticulation—long,short
tensenessofthespeechorgan—tense,lax
purityofthevowel—pure,gliding(滑音)
classifyconsonants
mannerofarticulation—airpartiallyortotallyobstructed
pointofplaceofarticulation—lips,variouspartsofthetongue,teeth,alveolarridge(齿槽),softandhardpalates(上颚),vocalcords,glottis(声门)
syllables
let-CVC
nucleus:
onset—consonants
rime—nuclear—vowel
--coda(音节尾)—consonants
stress,tone,intonation
Englishisastress-timedlanguage
双音节词,重音一般落在第一个音节上,如果后一个音节有长元音或滑元音核心,就落在第二个上
三音节词,重音落在倒数第二音节或倒数第三音节上,
如果第二个音节是长元音或跟有两个或以上辅音,被称为strongsyllables
如果有一个短元音或lax元音,或只跟有一个辅音,为weaksyllables
三音节以及以上的词,除非倒数第二个音节weak,否则就是倒数
primary\secondary\tertiarystress
tones:
pitchvariations(Chinese)
languageusingtonesarecalledtonelanguage
intonation:
pitchandstressaretiedtothesentence(falling,rising,fall-rise)
Englishisanintonationlanguage
rhythm
intonationunits—feet—anextensionofmeter(patternofstressedandunstressedsyllables)
iambic:
抑扬格
trochaic:
扬抑格
dactylic:
扬抑抑格
anapestic:
抑抑扬格
minimalpairs
twowordsaredifferentinmeaning,differentonlyonephoneme,thephonememakesthetwowordsdifferentoccursinthesamephoneticenvironment
contrastivedistribution-对比分布:
bit,beit
complementarydistribution
distinctivefeatures
assimilationrule:
Asoundmaychangebyassimilating/copyingafeatureofasequential/neighboringsound
deletionrule:
Asoundmaybedeletedeventhoughitmaybeorthographically(拼写地)represented.
alliteration
rhyme:
sameterminalsound
unit3TheUnitsofEnglish
morpheme
smallestunitsofmeaninginEnglish,lexicalorgrammatical
bound/free
affix—prefix,infix,suffix/root
derivational(conveyinglexicalmeaning)/inflectional(conveyinggrammaticalmeaning)
Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeattached;itdefinesthebasicmeaningoftheworditmakesup.
e.g.lived,shortened,weaknesses,landlords
wordsandidioms
words:
basicunitsoflanguage
openclasses(noun,verb,adj,adv.)/closeclasses(pronouns,prep,auxiliaryverb,modalverb(情态动词),particle,determiner(限定词))
affixation—unsuccessful,asleep,kingdom
conversion/functionshift—increase,hand(v.&n.),final
compounding/composition—makeup,greenhouse,outbreak,drop-out,boyfriend,sunshine,bad-mouth,overbook,fine-tune,white-collar
blending—smoke,fog,motel
back-formation—edit,televise
borrowing—toufu,freight(Dutch),education(Latin),cycle(Greek),balloon(Italian)
acronym—NATO,SCUBA
initialism—USA
clipping/shortening—fridge,gas,burger
coinage—sandwich
analogy—zipper-gate,Watergate
derivation
Eponymy人名演变法(eponyms)—Volt,Watt
Toponymy地名演变法(toponyms)—Mississippi,Montana
Onomatopoeia拟声法(onomatopoeia)—hiss,buzz
Hierarchicalsystem:
(morpheme-)word-phrase-clause-sentence
idioms
allowinternalmodification—men-of-war
verbalidiomsliketakeoffconsistofaverb&aparticlecommon
threeparts—missouton–AmericanEnglish
clausesandsentences
clause:
aunitoforganizationthatcontainsasubject-predicatestructure,finite/non-finite
simplesentence:
oneclause
coordinatesentence:
twoormoreclausesconjoinedbyand,or,so,orfor
complexsentence:
oneormoreclausesareembeddedintoamainclausetocommunicatepurpose,reason,time,place,manner,orconcession
declarative,imperative,exclamatory,interrogative—Yes-Noquestions,WH-questions,tagquestions,alternativequestions,rhetoricalquestions
sentence—subject,predicate(apredicateverb,anobject,adverbial(s),complement)
Semantically,theminimalformthatexpressesacompletethought
Formally,notincludedinanylargerlinguisticform
Averylargepartoflanguageismadeupofprefabricatedchunks,orready-madeexpressions,phraseologicalunitswhichdonothavetobegeneratedeverytimetheyareused.
constructions
integrateform(combinationsofsyntactic-句法,morphological-形态的orprosodic-韵律的patterns)andmeaning(includesallweintendtocommunicate)inconventionalizedandoftennon-compositionalways
alltypesofexpressionsareequallycentraltocapturinggrammaticalpatterning
ditransitive-双宾语,dative-与格
unit5structuresofEnglish
paragraph
topicsentence(beginning,end,middle)
supportingsentences
exemplification,instantiation,comparison,contrast,cause-effectreasoning,definition,analogy,enumeration
text
awell-writtentextmustbeproperlyorganizedaroundacentralpurposeorcoherenttopic
narration(chronologicalorflashbacks,etc.aprimaryperspectiveandpointofviewiscentral),argumentation(introduction,mainbody,conclusion),description,exposition
cohesion
logically:
because,however,bycontrast,firstly…indicatehowtheprevioussentenceisconnectedwiththecurrentorevenfollowingsentences
grammatically:
ellipsis,referencelikehe,it,substitutionlikeso,do,repetitionwords,useofsynonyms,antonyms,metonyms-部分-整体关系,hyponyms-下位词,summarytermscontributestotheconnectednessoftheneighboringsentences
reference:
exophoricreference:
arelationbetweenanentityinthesituationalcontextandalinguisticiteminthetext
endophoricreference:
relationbetweentwolinguisticitemsinthesametext;anaphoric-前指(involvesarelationbetweenaprecedingreferentialexpressionoranantecedent-先行词andthecurrentpronominal-代词的item),cataphoric-后指(denotesarelationbetweenthecurrentpronominalitemandthelateroccurringexpression).
turntaking
floor:
chancetospeak,maintainthefloororgiveupthefloor;interrupttoseizethefloor,orwaittobenominatedbythecurrentspeaker,ortakehintsfromhim
initiation:
aquestionorrequest,bythe1stspeakerandresponse:
bythe2ndspeakerformanadjacencypair
responseispositive–preferred,negative—dispreferred(well,hesitationmarkerslikeerm,pauses,explanations,accounts)
amode