Unit 12 Learner strategy.docx

Unit 12 Learner strategy.docx

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Unit12Learnerstrategy

Unit18Learnerstrategy

Pre-questions

1.Whatarethetwotypesofknowledgeregardinginput?

2.Whatdoesproceduralknowledgeinclude?

3.WhatisEllis’sframeworkofstrategieslike?

4.Whatarethetwotypesofspeech?

5.Whatarethehypothesesoflanguagelearningstrategies?

6.Whatarethethreetypesofinferencing?

7.Howtotesthypothesis?

8.Whataretheproductionstrategies?

9.Whataretheplanningstrategies?

10.Howtocorrectstrategies?

Introduction

ThisunitconsiderstheinternalprocesseswhichaccountforhowthelearnerhandlesinputdataandhowthelearnerutilizesL2resourcesintheproductionofmessagesintheL2.Itlooksattheinternalmechanisms,orthe'blackbox'.

AcompleteaccountofSLAinvolvesbothshowinghowtheinputisshapedtomakeitlearnable（aninter-organismperspective）,andhowthelearnerworksontheinputtoturnitintointake（anintra-organismperspective）.

18.1Twotypesofknowledge

ThelearnerhastwotypesofL2knowledge:

declarativeandprocedural（FaerchandKasper1983b）.

Declarativeknowledge（陈明性知识）is'knowingthat';itconsistsofinternalizedL2rulesandmemorizedchunksoflanguage.

Proceduralknowledge（程序性知识）isknowinghow;itconsistsofthestrategiesandproceduresemployedbythelearnertoprocessL2dataforacquisitionandforuse.WhenwetalkaboutacquiringaL2,wenormallymeandeclarativeknowledge,asthelearnerisconsideredtohaveaccessalreadytoasetofproceduresforlearningtheL2.Declarativeknowledgehasbeenexaminedinpreviousunits.

Proceduralknowledgecanbesubdividedinitiallyintosocialandcognitivecomponents（社会知识和认知知识）.Thesocialcomponentcomprisesthebehavioralstrategies（行为策略）usedbythelearnertomanageinteractionalopportunities（i.e.theuseoftheL2inface-to-facecontactorincontactwithL2texts）.Fillmore（1979）describesanumberofgeneralsocialstrategiesusedbyfiveSpanish-speakingchildrenlearningEnglishinplaysituationswithnative-speakingchildren.Atthebeginning,thechildrenadoptedthestrategyofjoiningagroupandactingasiftheyunderstoodwhatwasgoingon,eveniftheydidnot.Later,theysoughttogivetheimpressionthattheycouldspeakthelanguagebyutilizingafewcarefullychosenwords.Theyalsoreliedontheirfriendstohelpthemoutwhentheywereincommunicativedifficulty.

ThecognitivecomponentofproceduralknowledgecomprisesthevariousmentalprocessesinvolvedininternalizingandautomatizingnewL2knowledgeandinusingL2knowledgeinconjunctionwith（结合）otherknowledgesourcestocommunicateintheL2.Theseprocesses,therefore,involvebothlearningandusingtheL2.LearningprocessesaccountforhowthelearneraccumulatesnewL2rulesandautomatizesexistingonesbyattendingtoinputandbysimplifyingthroughtheuseofexistingknowledge.Theycanaccountforthe'natural'sequenceofdevelopment.TheprocessesinvolvedinusingL2knowledgeconsistofproductionandreceptionstrategiesandalsocommunicationstrategies.ProductionstrategiesaredefinedbyTarone（1981）asattemptstouseexistingL2knowledgeefficientlyandclearlywithaminimumofeffort.Communicationstrategiesoccurwhenthespeakerisnotabletocommunicatehisoriginalcommunicativegoalinthewayheplannedto,andsoisforcedtoreducethegoalortolocatealternativemeanstoexpressit.Communicationstrategiesaretheresultofaninitialfailuretoimplementaproductionplan.Languageuseischaracterizedbybothproductionandreceptionstrategies,whichoperatewhenthelearnerutilizesavailableresourceseasilyandsubconsciously.Itisalsocharacterizedbycommunicationstrategies,whichoperatewhenthelearnerneedstocompensateforinadequatemeansandwhich,asaresult,arelikelytoinvolvegreatereffortandtobeclosertoconsciousness.

18.2Frameworkofstrategies

AframeworkofthedifferentlearnerstrategiesisprovidedinFigure18.1.Itshouldberecognizedthatthesestrategiesarenotspecialtothelearner.Nativelanguagespeakersmustbeconsideredtousethesamestrategytypes.WhatdistinguishesL2learnersandnativespeakersisthefrequencywithwhichthesamestrategiesarecalledupon.Learnerswillmanifestmorestrategytokens.

declarativeknowledge

（i,e.L2rulesandchunks

ofspeech）{examinedin

Chapters3and4）

socialprocesses/strategies

（i.e.devicesformanaging

interactioninL2）

proceduralknowledgeforlearningL2

（examinedinthischapter}（i.e.devicesforinternalizingor

automatizingL2knowledge）

cognitive

strategies/production/receptionprocesses

processesandstrategies

{i.e.devicesforusingexisting

resourcesautomatically）

forusing

L2

communicationstrategies

（i.e.devicesforcompensating

forinadequateresources）

Figure18.1TypesofL2knowledge（Ellis,1999,165）

Beforeexaminingthedifferenttypesofproceduralknowledgeindetail,itisimportanttoconsiderthemetalanguage（元语言）usedtodescribethiskindofmentalphenomenon.Itisperhapsinevitable,giventheabstractnessoftheconceptsinvolved,thatthemetalanguageisoftenconfusingandvague.Inparticular,researchersdonotusetermslike'process','strategy',or'principle'consistently.Sometimestheyusethemassynonymsforgeneralmentaloperations,butsometimestheyusethemtodifferentiateoperationsinvolvedinlanguageprocessing.Forexample,FaerchandKasper（1980）makeacleardistinctionbetween'strategy'and'process'.Theydefinetheformerasplansforcontrollingtheorderinwhichasequenceofoperationsistobeperformed,andthelatterastheoperationsinvolvedeitherinthedevelopmentofaplan（theplanningprocess）orintherealizationofaplan（therealizationprocess）--seeFigure18.2below.

goal

planningprocess

plan

realizationprocess

action

Figure18.2Theplanningandrealizationofintellectualbehavior

（FaerchandKasper1980）

Aproblemwithsuchadistinctionisthatthereislittleconsensus（共识）concerningwhichbehaviorsbelongto'processes',asopposedto'strategies'.Itisreasonabletodistinguishtheideaofasequenceofoperations（asin'theproduction/receptionprocess'）（一系列操作）andtheideaofasingleoperationasafeatureofaprocess（asin'astrategyofsimplification'）（单次操作）.

18.3Specificlearningstrategies

Theproliferationoftermsandconcepts,socharacteristicofaccountsofeveryaspectofproceduralknowledge,isperhapsmostevidentindiscussionsoflearningstrategies.Strategiesasvariedasmemorization,overgeneralization,inferencing,andprefabricatedpatterns（预模）haveallbeentreatedunderthegeneralheadingof'learningstrategies'.Inadditionthereisconstantreferencetotheprocessofhypothesis-testing,whichunderliesinaratherill-definedwaytheoperationofthemorespecificstrategies.

18.4Twotypesofspeech

SomeorderisimposedbyEllis（1999）onthisheterogeneity（异质性）representedbyframework.Thebasisoftheframeworkisadistinctionbetweentwotypesoflinguisticproduct:

formulaicspeechandcreativespeech.

18.4.1Formulaicspeech

Formulaicspeechconsistsof'expressionswhicharelearnedasunanalyzablewholesandemployedonparticularoccasions…’（Lyons1968:

177）.Itcanbeobservedinthespeechofnativespeakersaswellasoflearners.KrashenandScarcella（1978）distinguishbetweenroutines（常规）andpatterns.Routinesrefertowholeutteranceslearntasmemorizedchunks,andpatternsrefertoutterancesthatareonlypartiallyunanalyzedandhaveoneormoreopenslots

e.g.CanIhave__?

CanIhavea___?

I’dlovetobut____.

DoyoumindmyV–ing?

AccordingtoEllis（1984c）,formulaicspeechcanconsistofentirescripts,suchasgreetingsequences,whichthelearnercanmemorizebecausetheyaremoreorlessfixedandpredictable.

e.g.

A:

Howareyou?

B:

I’mfine.Thankyou.Andyou?

A:

I’mfine,too.

FormulaicspeechhasbeenobservedtobeverycommoninSLA,particularlyintheearlystagesofdevelopment.Itfiguresfrequentlyinthespeechbothofchildlearners（cf.HuangandHatch1978）andofadultlearners（cf.Hellwig1983）innaturalisticSLA,andalsoinsomeclassroomlearners（cf.Ellis1984c）.Theparticularunanalyzedchunkswhicharelearntarelikelytovaryfromlearnertolearner,butthefollowingappeartobetypical:

e.g.

Idon'tknow.

CanIhavea_____?

Thereisno_____.

What'sthis?

Iwanna__.

Thisisa__.

Howdoyoudo?

Ican'tspeakEnglish.

Eachformulaiscloselytiedtoaparticularcommunicativegoal.Ellis（1984a）,forinstance,notesthatthreeclassroomlearnersrapidlydevelopedanumberofformulastomeetthebasiccommunicativeneedsinanESLclassroomwhereEnglishfunctionedasthemediumofcommunication.IthasbeensuggestedbyKrashenandScarcella（1978）thatlearnersdevelopformulasasaresponsetocommunicativepressure.Thatis,theymemorizeanumberofready-madeexpressionstocompensateforlackofsufficientL2rulestoconstructcreativespeech.Krashen（1982）arguesthatformulaicspeechoccurswhenthelearnerisforcedtospeakbeforeheisready.Lefttohisowndevices,hewillengageina'silentperiod'whilehebuildsupsufficientL2rulestospeakcreatively.Theimportantpoint,however,isthatformulaicspeechiscloselytiedtotheperformanceofspecificmeanings,andthatitiscommoninearlySLAbecauseitreducesthelearningburdenwhilemaximizingcommunicativeability.

Patternmemorization

Whatarethelearningstrategiesinvolvedinacquiringformulaicspeech?

Itisveryunlikelythatthesearethesameasthoseinvolvedintheacquisitionofrulesresponsibleforcreativespeech.Onesuggestionisthatformulaicspeechmayinvolvetheright