Environmental History Yang Yuanyuan B1196502.docx

Environmental History Yang Yuanyuan B1196502.docx

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EnvironmentalHistoryYangYuanyuanB1196502

EnvironmentalHistory

Cocacultivationandtheenvironmentalimpacts

2012/01/25

Supervisor:

AnnaMcDonald

GlobalEnvironmentM1

ID:

B1196502

YANGYUANYUAN

Cocacultivationandtheenvironmentalimpacts

Introduction

Cocahasanearly4,000yeartraditioninSouthAmericaaccordingtoarchaeologicalfinds.ItusedtoplayasignificantroleinAndeancultureandeconomics,anditspossessionhasneverbeenshockedtilltoday.Withtheresearchanddiscoveryoftheextractedcocainealkaloidin1854,thelate19thandearly20thcenturysawanexplosionofcocacultivationandtransportallaroundtheworld（HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown）.EventhoughtheWorldWarIIendedthecommoditychainofcocawhichhadlastedalmostacentury,themodernworldisstillsufferingaseriesofproblemsasaresultofthecocaineusingandincreasingcocacultivation.

Thetimelineoftheexpansionofcocaandcocainecanbedividedintofourparts,whichare2100BC-1860s,thetraditionaluseofcocaleafinAndeanregion;1860s-1910,thecreationofworldcommoditynetworksaroundcocaandcocaine;1910-1950,themountingpoliticalandmarketconstraintsoncocaandcocaine;1950-now,theillegalmoderncocaineabuseanddrugcontrol.Theuseofcocaleafofthefirstperiod,whichincludesrelievingfatigueandhunger,traditionalmedicalapplicationsandreligioussacrificial,isnotcoveredbythisarticleasithaslittleimpactonthemodernsocietyandenvironment.

Mostofthecocaplantationsintheworldareintropicalregions,sincegenerallyrainforestsarelocatedinremoteandalmostimpenetrableareas,whereplantationsareeasiertodisguise,andcocaalsohappenstogrowwellonwetlowlands.ColombiahasbeenthenumberonecocaineproducerintheworlduntilPeruovertakenitasworld'sleadingproducerofcocaleafaccordingtoareportpublishedbytheUnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime（UNODC）onJune2010.TheincreasingcultivationofcocainSouthAmerica,especiallyintheAndeanregion,hascontributedtobothsocialandenvironmentalproblems,suchasdrugcrime,smuggling,deforestationandwaterpollution.

Thecocaineproductionandtradeisaninternationalproblemofbothsupplyanddemand.Mostpeoplerealizethesocialimpactsofthedrugtradeworldwide,butfewrealizetheenvironmentalconsequencesoftheincreasingcocacultivation,whichareconsiderable.

Thisarticlehopes,byreviewingthehistoryofcocaandanalyzingtheenvironmentalandsocialimpactsoftheexpandingcultivationandtransportofit,toincreasethepublicawarenessofthisissueandfindpossiblewayswhichcanhelptoimprovethecurrentsituation.

Abriefhistoryofcocacultivationandtrade

WithdeeprootsinAndeanculturehistory,cocadidnotbecomeanexportablecommodityuntilthelate-nineteenthcentury.Butintheyear1854,becauseoftheextractedofcocainealkaloidfromthecocaleaf,theworldbegantointerestinthisnewkindof"elixir",andchangedcocatoaworldwildcommodity（HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown）.Theexpansionofthecultivateonandtradeofcocacameaboutquicklyafter1860sasEuropeanbotanyandmedicinesettledcoca'sstimulantpower,asindustrializingsocietiessearchedfornewhealthstimulantsandmodernmedicalmarvelsandasAndeannationsdesperatelysoughtnewmodernexportgoods.

In1863,AngeloMariani,aFrenchpharmacist,launchedhisremarkablysuccessfulVinMarianicoca-Bordeauxwine,aseriesofcoca-containingproducts,andbecamethesinglelargestuserofAndeancoca.Asaresult,between1863and1885,FrenchmedicalinterestfilteredtoPeru（HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown）.

Asthestartofanesthesiaandothermedicalusessince1855,thecocapriceandoutputjumpedfiveandtwentytimesrespectively.Facedwiththerelativelyhigh-profitofcocaproduction,inthe1860sto1870s,Peruvianmedicalandculturalspokesmenovercametraditionaleliteprejudicesandbegantoseriouslyre-evaluatenativecoca,asagoodandmarketablething.Subsequently,afteradoptioninsurgery,thecocaproductionrosequicklytoover500kilosannuallyin1890,1,500kilosin1898,andtomorethan2,400kilosby1902.MerckCompany,amajorproducerofcocaineinAmerica,madeaboutaquarterofworldcocaineduringthisperiod（HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown）.Andthisbecametheturningpointofcocaandcocaineproduction.Merck'sstrategyofencouragingPeruviansuppliersofcrudecocainemadethetransporteasierandfittedtheEuropeancultural-medicalpreferencefor"pure"scientificcocaine.By1892,crudecocaineearningssurpassedPeru'srevenuefromcoca-leafitself.Asthesuccessofcrudecocaine,theworldproductionofcocaineexceeding15metrictonsbytheearly1900s.Around1901,Peru'slocalcocainezenith,thetotalproductionpeakedat10,700kilosofcrudecocaine,whichrequiredtheuseofsome160tonsofrawcoca-leaf.By1900,Americansweretheworld'slargestandavidconsumersandboostersofcocaine.TheUnitedStatesimported600-1000metrictonsofcocaannually,mainlyforthepopularmarketofCoca-Cola,anonalcoholdrinklaunchedin1886asa"dry"southernimitationofMariani'spopularhealthbeverage.ThetotalU.S.Consumptionpeakedaround9tonsin1903,orsometwo-thirdsoftotalflobalusageofsome15tons.

WiththeincreasingdemandofcocaineinbothEuropeandUnitedStates,intheearly1900s,theinternationalcocamarketsbecamesaturated（HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown）.

Butafterthepeakofcocacommerce,1910s-1950ssawcocaine’sdeclininganditsglobalprohibition.Fromproductionofmorethan15tonsormorein1905,totaluselikelyhalvedtofewerthan8tonsby1930,by1950,theU.N.setlegalworldmedicinalneedsatunder4tonsofcocaine（HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown）.

Therearetwomainfactorsdrovethedecline.Thefirstisanarrowingofmedicalusagebysubstitutesandbymedicalopinion.AsNCF（NederlandschCocainefobrieck）madetheNococain,cocaine’slatestsyntheticsubstitutein1920s,thecocapricesplummeted.Thendominantmedicalandgovernmentalopinionbegantoturnagainstcocaandcocaine（alongwithalcoholandnarcotics）andspreading“fiends”.Inmedicalscience,theideaofcocaineasapoisonousoraddictivenarcoticinPerudevelopedintoagrowinganti-cocasentiment.Andcocaisviewedasbackwardsandharmfultodevelopment.Thesecondreasonistheincreasinganti-cocainelawsandcampaignsbystatesandinternationalorganizations.TheUnitedStates,thelargestconsumer-marketinitiatednationalrestrictionsinthe1906FDA（FoodandDrugAdministration）Actfollowedbyafederalban（inthe1914HarrisonAct）andafullimport-controlsystemby1922.TheyalsopushedglobalcocainecontrolsattheHagueConventionsof1912-1914andatsuccessiveLeague-of-Nations’sponsoredGenevaanti-naroticsConventionsstartingin1924-1925.Thenthegrowingworldanti-cocainefilteredtoPeru,inagreatturnaboutaround1925-1950viascience,politicsandmarkets.After1920,illicituseofcocainelargelydriedupintheUnitedStates,andpopularcocaproductsbecameentirelybannedandeliminated,withthenotableexceptionofboomingandcocaine-freeCoca-Cola.InPeru,bythemid-1920s,Peruvianhealthofficialsembracedafewmodernnarcoticscontrols,inthemid-1940s,theseregulationsturnintopolicefactions,preludetocriminalizingoflegalcocaine-makingin1947-1949.（HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown）

WorldWarIIwasthedefinitiveturningpointofcoca.ThewarcutoffthecommoditychainofcocaleaftoEurope,andafterwardswiththeadventoftheColdwar,thechainbornalmostacenturybefore,ended--atleastinitslicitmarkerphase.

Since1950,Andeancocaine,outlawedbyauthoritieseverywhere,thelegalcocainemarketended.Anundergroundcultureandchainofillicitcocainewasconstructedbetweentheyearsof1950to1970.ThenasAmericancocainesuppressionheatedupafter1980,hugenewretailmarketswerediscoveredandcocafrontiersforillicitexportspreadmassivelyintothedeepjungleofAmazon.Bytheearly1990s,illicitcocaineenvelopedaproductivecapacityestimatedintherangeof1000metrictons.Moderncocaineabusebecameanewhot-pointofcocacommerce.

Thefactorscontributetotheexpansionofcocacultivation

Therearealotoffactorscontributetotheshiftincocaproductionfromtraditionalusetoacash-crop.Thissectionwillseethethreemainreasonswhichgiverisetotheexpansionofcocacultivation.

1）Economicalprofits

Coca,withanIRR（InternalRateofReturn）exceeding114percentforeachofthetwovarieties（sweetandbitter）,ismoreprofitablethananyotherlegallycultivatedcropinColombia（FIGURE3-1）（HomeofFAO）.Infact,theonlycroptoreturnagreaterprofitthancocainColombiawaspoppy,whichreturnedaprofit22percenthigherthancoca（SweeneyJohn,1995）.Furthermore,cocaiseasytomarket,astheproductsareboughtbyintermediariesatthefarmgate,whichmeansthatfarmerssparingthecostsoftransport.

In1992,Colombiaonlyproduced13percentoftheworld'scoca（ArmsteadL,1992）,however,till2010,itreached40percentoftotalproductionanddistributionworldwide（Telegraphnews,2010）.ThecocaandcocainebusinesshashadanenormouseffectinColombia.EstimatesplacethatthetotalincomeofdrugrepatriatedintotheColombiaeconomytobeashighas＄7billion,whichisalmostaslargeasthetotallegitimateexportsofColombiawhichwere＄7.6billionin1993.ThesehugeprofitsexertaninfluenceovernearlyeveryaspectoflifeinColombia.Andover＄100millionoftheprofitsisspentonbribestoColombianofficials