History Roman Britain.docx
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HistoryRomanBritain
RomanBritain
Hadrian'sWall(哈德良长城) viewedfromVercovicium
AfterCaesar'sexpeditions,theRomansbegantheirrealattempttoconquerBritainin43AD,atthebehestof(在……的命令下)theEmperorClaudius.TheylandedinKent,anddefeatedtwoarmiesledbythekingsofthe Catuvellauni tribe, Caratacus and Togodumnus,inbattlesattheMedway(麦德威河)andtheThames.Togodumnuswaskilled,andCaratacusfledtoWales.TheRomanforce,ledbyAulusPlautius,thenhaltedasPlautiussentforClaudiustocomeandfinishthecampaign.WhenClaudiusarrivedheledthefinalmarchontheCatuvellaunicapitalat Camulodunum,beforereturningtoRomeagainforhistriumph.TheCatuvellauniatthistimeheldswayover(支配)themostofthesoutheasterncornerofEngland;elevenlocalrulerssurrendered,anumberofclientkingdoms(附庸国)wereestablished,andtherestbecameaRomanprovincewithCamulodunumasitscapital.
Overthenextfouryears,theterritorywasconsolidated(巩固)andthefutureemperor VespasianledacampaignintotheSouthwestwherehesubjugated(征服)twomoretribes.By54ADtheborderhadbeenpushedbacktotheSevern(赛文河)andtheTrent(特伦托河),andcampaignswereunderwaytosubjugateNorthernEnglandandWales.In60ADhowever,undertheleadershipofthewarrior-queen Boudicca,thetribesroseinrevoltagainsttheRomans.Camulodunumwasburnedtotheground,aswellas Londinium and Verulamium,thereissomearchaeologicalevidencethatthesamehappenedatWinchesteraswell,andtheSecondLegion(军团)Augusta,stationedat Exeter,refusedtomoveforfearofrevoltamongthelocalsthereaswell.Thegovernorhowever, SuetoniusPaulinus,marchedbackfromhiscampaigninWalestofaceBoudiccainbattle.Therewasasubstantialengagement,somewherealongthelineofWatlingStreet,attheendofwhichBoudiccawasutterlydefeated.Theprovincewaspacified(平定)oncemore.
Overthenexttwentyyearsthebordersexpandedbutlittle,butthegovernorshipofAgricolasawthelastpocketsofindependenceinWalesandNorthernEnglandfinallyincorporatedintotheprovince.HealsoledacampaignintoScotland,butfromtheseconquestshewasrecalledbytheEmperorDomitian,andthebordergraduallysolidified(凝固,团结)alongthelineoftheStanegate inNorthernEngland. Hadrian'sWall wasbuiltalongthislinein138AD;apartfromanumberoftemporaryforays(突袭,侵略)intoScotland,thiswasnowtheborder.TheRomans,andtheirculture,wereheretostay;overthecourseoftheirthreehundredandfiftyyearsincharge,England'slandscapewouldbecomeubiquitously(无所不在的)impregnatedwithtracesoftheirpresence.
TheAnglo-Saxoninvasion
Kingdomsandtribesin Britain,c.700AD
Inthewakeof(紧随而来…)thebreakdownofRomanruleinBritainfromthemiddleofthefourthcentury,presentdayEnglandwasprogressivelysettledby Germanic groups.Collectivelyknownasthe"Anglo-Saxons",thesewere Angles and Saxons from,whatisnow,theDanish/Germanborderareaand Jutes fromtheJutlandpeninsula(日德兰半岛).Theentireregionwasreferredtoas,"Hwicce"andsettlementsthroughoutthesouthwerecalled Gewisse.The BattleofDeorham wasacriticalbattlethatestablishedtheAnglo-Saxonrulein577.Saxonmercenaries(雇佣兵)hadbeenpresentinBritainsincebeforethelateRomanperiod,butthemaininfluxofpopulationisthoughttohavetakenplaceafterthefifthcentury.Theprecisenatureoftheseinvasionshasnotbeenfullydetermined,withdoubtsbeingcastonthelegitimacyofhistoricalaccountsduetoalackofarchaeologicalfinds. TheBritonstheninvitedthe Saxons intotheisland,hopingtorepeltheinvadingarmiesofthenorth.Totheirdismay(沮丧,灰心),theSaxonsthemselvesturnedagainsttheBritonsaftervanquishingtheScotsandPicts.
SevenKingdomsaretraditionallyidentifiedasbeingestablishedbytheseSaxonmigrants.Threewereclustered(聚合)intheSoutheast:
Sussex, Kent and Essex.TheMidlandsweredominatedbythekingdomsof Mercia and EastAnglia.The MonarchsofMercia'slineage(血统,世系)wasdeterminedtoreachasfarbackastheearly500's.Tothenorthwas Northumbria whichunifiedtwoearlierkingdoms, Bernicia and Deira.Thedevelopmentofthesekingdomsledtotheeventualdominationby Northumbria andMercia inthe7thcentury, Mercia inthe8thcenturyandthen Wessex inthe9thcentury. Northumbria extendeditscontrolnorthinto Scotland andwestintoWales.Italsosubdued(征服,制服) Mercia whosefirstpowerfulKing, Penda,waskilledby Oswy in655.Northumbria'spowerbegantowaneafter685withthedefeatanddeathofitsking Aegfrith atthehandsofthe Picts.Mercianpowerreacheditspeakundertheruleof Offa,whofrom785hadinfluenceovermostofAnglo-SaxonEngland.FromOffa'sdeathin796thesupremacyof Wessex wasestablishedunder Egbert whoextendedhiscontrolwestinto Cornwall beforedefeatingtheMerciansatthe BattleofEllendun in825.FouryearslaterhereceivedsubmissionandtributefromtheNorthumbrianking, Eanred.
Thesequenceofeventsofthefifthandsixthcenturiesisparticularlydifficulttoaccess,pepperedwith(使布满)amixtureofmythology,suchasthecharactersofHengistandHorsa,andlegend,suchasSt Germanus'sso-called"AlleluiaVictory"againsttheHeathens,andhalf-rememberedhistory,suchastheexploits(业绩,伟绩)ofAmbrosiusAurelianus and KingArthur.However,thebeliefthattheSaxonssimplywipedordroveoutallthenativeBritonsfromEnglandhasbeenwidelydiscredited(受怀疑)byanumberofarchaeologistssincethe2000s.Atanyrate,theAnglo-Saxons,includingSaxonifiedBritons,progressivelyspreadintoEngland,byacombinationofmilitaryconquestandculturalassimilation,untilbytheeighthcenturysomekindofEnglandreallyhademerged.
Heptarchy(七王国)andChristianisation
Britainc.800
ChristianisationofAnglo-SaxonEngland beganaround600AD,influencedby CelticChristianity fromthenorthwestandbytheRomanCatholicChurch fromthesoutheast. Augustine,thefirst Archbishop(大主教)ofCanterbury,tookofficein597.In601,hebaptisedthefirstChristianAnglo-Saxonking, AethelbertofKent.Thelastpagan(异教徒,无信仰者)Anglo-Saxonking, PendaofMercia,diedin655.Thelastpagan Jutish king, Arwald ofthe IsleofWight waskilledin686.The Anglo-Saxonmission onthecontinenttookoffinthe8thcentury,leadingtotheChristianisationofpracticallyallofthe FrankishEmpire by800.
Throughoutthe7thand8thcenturypowerfluctuatedbetweenthelargerkingdoms. Bede records AethelbertofKent asbeingdominantatthecloseofthe6thcentury,butpowerseemstohaveshiftednorthwardstothekingdomofNorthumbria,whichwasformedfromtheamalgamation(融合,联合)ofBerniciaandDeira. EdwinofNorthumbria probablyhelddominanceovermuchofBritain,thoughBede'sNorthumbrianbiasshouldbekeptinmind.Successioncrises(继位危机)meantNorthumbrianhegemony(霸权,领导权)wasnotconstant,andMercia remainedaverypowerfulkingdom,especiallyunderPenda.TwodefeatsessentiallyendedNorthumbriandominance:
theBattleoftheTrentin679againstMercia,andNechtanesmerein685againstthe Picts.
Theso-called"MercianSupremacy"(莫西亚人的霸权)dominatedthe8thcentury,thoughitwasnotconstant.Aethelbaldand Offa,thetwomostpowerfulkings,achievedhighstatus;indeed,Offawasconsideredtheoverlord(大君主,霸主)ofsouthBritainby Charlemagne.ThatOffacouldsummontheresourcestobuild Offa'sDyke istestament(遗嘱)tohispower.However,arisingWessex,andchallengesfromsmallerkingdoms,keptMercianpowerincheck,andbytheearly9thcenturythe"MercianSupremacy"wasover.
Thisperiodhasbeendescribedasthe Heptarchy,thoughthistermhasnowfallenoutofacademicuse.Thewordaroseonthebasisthatthesevenkingdomsof Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, EastAnglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex werethemainpolitiesofsouthBritain.Morerecentscholarship hasshownthatotherkingdomswerealsopoliticallyimportantacrossthisperiod:
Hwicce, Magonsaete, Lindsey andMiddleAnglia.
VikingchallengeandtheriseofWessex
Englandin878
Thefirstrecorded Viking attackinBritainwasin793at Lindisfarne monastery(修道院)asgivenbythe Anglo-SaxonChronicle.However,bythentheVikingswerealmostcertainlywell-establishedin Orkney and Shetland,andmanyothernon-recordedraids(突袭)probablyoccurredbeforethis.RecordsdoshowthefirstVikingattackon Iona takingplacein794.ThearrivaloftheVikings(inparticulartheDanish GreatHeathenArmy)upsetthepoliticalandsocialgeographyofBritainandIreland.In867 Northumbria felltotheDanes(丹麦人); EastAnglia fellin869.Though Wessex managedtocontaintheVikingsbydefeatingthemat Ashdown in871,asecondinvadingarmylanded,leavingtheSaxonsonadefensivefooting.AtmuchthesametimeEthelred,kingofWessexdiedandwassucceedbyhisyoungerbrother Alfred.AlfredwasimmediatelyconfrontedwiththetaskofdefendingWessexagainsttheDanes.Hespentthefirstfiveyearsofhisreignpayingtheinvadersoff.In878,Alfred'sforceswereoverwhelmedatChippenhaminasurpriseattack.
Itwasonlynow,withtheindependenceofWessexhangingbyathread,thatAlfredemergedasagreatking.InMay878heledaforcethatdefeatedtheDanesat Edington.ThevictorywassocompletethattheDanishleader, Guthrum,wasforcedtoacceptChristianbaptismandwithdrawfrom Mercia.AlfredthensetaboutstrengtheningthedefencesofWessex,buildinganewnavy—60vessels(船舶)strong.Alfred'ssuccessboughtWessexandMerciayearsofpeaceandsparkedeconomicrecoveryinpreviouslyravagedareas.
Alfred'ssuccesswassustainedbyhisson Edward,whosedecisivevictoriesovertheDanesinEastAngliain910and911werefollowedbyacrushingvictoryatTempsfo