词汇学chapter18重点知识.docx

词汇学chapter18重点知识.docx

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词汇学chapter18重点知识

Chapter3MorphologystructureofEnglishwords

3.1Morphemes

Thedefinitionofamorpheme:

Themorpheme（词素）isthesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunitoflanguage,notdivisibleoranalyzableintosmallerforms.Awordisthesmallestunitofalanguagethatstandsalonetocommunicatemeaning.Structurally,however,awordisnotthesmallestunitbecausemanywordscanbeseparatedintosmallermeaningfulunits.Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.WhatisusuallyconsideredasinglewordinEnglishmaybecomposedofoneormoremorphemes

Wordscanhaveaninternalstructure,i.e.theyaredecomposableintosmallermeaningfulparts.Thesesmallestmeaningfulunitswecallmorphemes.

Onemorpheme:

nation

Twomorphemes:

nation-al

Threemorphemes:

nation-al-ize

Fourmorphemes:

de-nation-al-ize

确定语素必须满足两个标准,一是含义相近,二是发音相近.

-ly在manly,princely,friendly中属于同一个语素.

-er在worker,teacher,speaker,swimmer等词中意为"做…的人",属于同一语素,

但在manner一词并不是man和-er合起来的意思,所以manner不能看作是由man和-er两个语素构成,其中的-er也不能看作是与worker中的-er相同的语素.

3.2ClassificationofMorphemes

Morphemescanbeclassifiedinvariousways.

free

bound

root

affix

inflectional

derivational

Morphemesmaybeclassifiedintofreeandbound.

Freemorphemes（自由词素）,alsocalledcontentmorphemes（实义词素）,mayconstitutewordsbythemselves.

Boundmorphemes（粘着词素）,knownasgrammaticalmorphemes（语法词素）,mustappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme,eitherfreeorbound.

3.2.1TypesofMorphemes—freevs.bound

●Freemorphemes（自由词素）

Morphemeswhichareindependentofothermorphemesareconsideredtobefree.Freemorphemeshavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Therefore,wemightaswellsaythatfreemorphemesarecontentmorphemes（实义词素）orfreeroots（自由词根）.

man,earth,wind,faith,red,write….

●BoundMorphemes（粘着词素）

Morphemeswhichcannotoccurasseparatewordsarebound.Theyaresonamedbecausetheyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwords.Unlikefreemorphemes,theydonothaveindependentsemanticmeaning;instead,theyhaveattachedmeaning（un-kind,hope-ful）orgrammaticalmeaning（cat-s,slow-ly,walk-ing,call-ed）.Theyarealsocalledgrammaticalmorphemes.

3.2.2typesofmorphemes—rootvs.affixes

Morphemesmayalsobeclassifiedintoroots（orrootmorphemes）andaffixes（oraffixationalmorphemes）.

definitionofroot:

Arootisthepartoftheword-formwhichremainswhenalltheaffixeshavebeenremoved.

Arootisthebasicunchangeablepartofawordwhichconveysthefundamentalmeaningoftheword.

Twotypesofroots–Freeroots:

Morphemesaresaidtobefreeiftheycanstandaloneaswords（InEnglish,manyrootsarefreeroots）blackinblack,blackboard,blacksmith,blackmail.

Boundroots:

Theyaresocalledbecausetheyarealwaysboundtosomethingelse.Theycannotexistontheirownceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive,deceive.

Boundroots（粘着词根）:

Aboundrootisthatpartofthewordthatcarriesthefundamentalmeaningjustlikeafreeroot.Unlikeafreeroot,itisaboundformandhastocombinewithothermorphemestomakewords.

（However,therearequiteanumberofrootswhichcannotexistontheirownandthusbelongtotheclassofboundmorphemes.

Forexample,ceiveinreceive,conceive,perceive,deceive.theserootscannotbeusedtoformnewwords.）

Aroot,whetheritisfreeorbound,generallycarriesthemaincomponentofmeaninginaword.

therefore,thataknowledgeofrootscanhelponetoanalyzeandunderstandmanywordsalmostonsight.AlthoughtheLatinandGreekrootsareusuallyboundmorphemesandcannotstandalone,itishelpfultorecognizesomeofthecommonones,sincethousandsofEnglishwordsarebuiltonthem.KnowingthemeaningoftheserootscanhelpclarifythemeaningofmanyEnglishwords.

3.2.3Twotypesofaffixes

Affixes（词缀）:

Affixesareformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomodifymeaningorfunction.Accordingtothefunctionsofaffixes,wecanputthemintotwogroups:

inflectional（曲折词缀）andderivational（派生词缀）affixes.

Affixescanbedividedintoinflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemes.Thisreflectstwomajormorphological（wordbuilding）processes:

Affixisacollectivetermforthetypeofformative（构词成分）thatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.

●Inflectionalaffixes:

doesnotformanewmeaningwhenitisaddedtoanotherword.Nordoesitchangethepartofthewordtowhichitisaffixed.

●Derivationalaffixes:

whentheyareaddedtoanothermorpheme,theyderiveanewword.

Manyhaveaspecificlexicalmeaning.Quiteanumberofthemhavemorethanonemeaning.Theyhaveaffectivemeaning

3.2.3affixes

●Inflectionalaffixes（曲折词缀）

Affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.Forexample:

cats,walked,walking,John’sbook…

●Derivationalaffixes（派生词缀）

Affixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.Theycanbefurtherdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes

Prefixes（前缀）;Suffixes（后缀）

Inflectionalaffixes（orinflectionalmorphemes）servetoexpressthefollowingmeanings:

（1）plurality:

e.g.-sinchairs,pens;-esinboxes,tomatoes;eninoxen.

（2）thegenitivecase:

e.g.’sinboy’s,children’s.

（3）theverbalendings:

forexample,

a.-（e）sinwordslikeeats,teachesshowsthethirdpersonsingularpresenttense.

b.-inginwordslikeeating,teachingshowsthepresentparticipleorgerund.

c.-（e）dinwordslikeworked,savedshowsthepasttenseorpastparticiple.

（4）thecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees:

e.g.-erinwordslikesmaller,harder;-estinwordslikesmallest,hardest.

●DerivationalMorphemes--eitherbychangingthemeaningofthebasetowhichtheyareattached;orbychangingthegrammaticalcategory（partofspeech）ofthebase

DerivationalAffixesaresubdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes

（1）Prefixesareaffixesbeforetheroot,e.g.unjust,rewrite.

Asarule,mostprefixesmodifythemeaningofroots,butnottheirpartsofspeech.

task:

listsomeprefixesthatcanmodifythepartsofspeech.-en-（em-）asinwordslikeembody,enrich

（2）Suffixesareaffixesaftertheroot,e.g.darkness,worker.

Bytheadditionofthesuffix,thewordisusuallychangedfromonepartofspeechintoanother,e.g.liberation,modernize

Bothprefixesandsuffixesmaybegroupedaccordingto:

1.Theirlinguisticorigin:

Native/foreignaffixes

1）.NativeaffixesarethosethatexistedintheOEperiodorwereformedfromOEwords,suchasun-,mis-,be-,out-,over-,-ness,-dom,-hood,-ly,and–er.

2）.ForeignaffixescameasapartofloanwordsfromLatin,Greek,French,orotherlanguages.Examples:

ab-（L）,bi-（L）,dis-（L）,re-（L）,kilo-（Gk）,poly-（Gk）,mal-（F）,-ic（Gk）,-ism（Gk）,-ist（Gk）,-able（F）,and–ize（F）.

Ahybrid混合词isawordmadeupofelementsfromtwoormoredifferentlanguages.

2.Theirproductivity:

Affixes（suchasre-,un-,-able,-ize）arecalledproductiveorlivingwhentheycanbeusedtoformnewwords.

Thosethatarenolongerusedtoformnewwordsaretermeddeadorunproductive.

Examplesofdeadaffixesare:

for-asinforget,forgiveandforbid;with-asinwithdraw,withholdandwithstand,and–antor–entasinservant,different,etc.

Sum:

InflectionandDerivation

Derivationalmorphemesareusedtocreatenewlexicalitems（lexemes（词位））.

Inflectionalmorphemesonlycontributetotheinflectionalparadigm词形变化ofthelexemes,whichlistsalltheword-formsofthelexeme.

3.2TypesofMorphemes

Diagramofmorphemes

classificationofwordsonamorphemiclevel

Onthislevel,words,accordingtothenumberandtypeofmorphemestheycontain,canbeclassifiedinto:

（1）simplewords:

thoseconsistingofasinglemorpheme,suchasman,work,kind;

（2）derivedwords:

thosewhicharetheresultofaderivationalprocess.Suchwordsusuallyconsistofafreemorphemeandone（ormorethanone）boundmorpheme,suchasfruitless,fruitful,unfruitful,unfruitfulness;

（3）compoundwords:

thosewhicharecomposedoftwoormorefreemorphemes,e.g.deepstructure,spacesuit,forget-me-not,stick-in-the-mud,andjackofalltrades.

3.3Morphandallomorph

Thedefinitionofmorph（语素形式/词素形式）

-phonological（音韵的）andorthographical（拼写的）formsusedtorepresentmorphemes.Morphemescanberepresentedinbraces.Forexample,{big}ispronouncedas/big/andspelledasbig,thus/big/andbigarerespectivelythephonologicalandorthographicalmorphsof{big}.

Morpheme,Morph,Allomorph

Amorphisaphysicalformrepresentingacertainmorphemeinalanguage.

Sometimesdifferentmorphsmayrepresentthesamemorpheme;i.e.,amorphememaytakedifferentforms.Ifso,theyarecalledallomorphsofthatmorpheme.

Anallomorph（词素变体）isanyofthevariantformsofamorphemeasconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsounds.

区别：

语言中最小的不可再分的意义单位是词素morpheme（又可称为形位、语素等）。

词素是抽象的，它是通过词素形式morph表现出来的。

词素还具有变体形式，在语言学中称为词素变体allomorph。

Allomorphsaremorphsincomplementarydistribution;i.e.theyareneverfoundinidenticalcontexts.

Thechoiceofallomorphusedinagivencontextisnormallybasedonthepropertiesoftheneighboringsounds.

Example:

Thethirdpersonsingularverbsuffixandthepluralnominalsuffix–sinEnglish

Verbsendingwiththesound/t/usuallytake–ion（asininvent,invention）;

verbsendingwithconsonantsotherthan/t/take–tion（asindescribe,description）;

verbsendingin–ifyand–izetake–ation（asinjustify,justification;modernize,modernization）;

verbsendingin–d,-de,or–mit,take–sion（asinexpansion,decision,omission）;thereareexceptions:

attend,attention;convert,conversion,etc.

Aprefixlikeim-occursbeforep,b,orm（imperfect,imbalance,