二十四谬误中英对照.docx
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二十四谬误中英对照
二十四谬误中英对照
第一部分考试范围内
本次考试考第一部分列举的前15个。
后面第二部分列举的仅供以后学习参考。
(一)了解基本逻辑,避免常见错误 要了解基本逻辑错误一定不能错过一篇英文小品文LoveIsAFallacy(作者MaxShulman),这里仅列举出十种最常见的逻辑错误。
1.草率前提(DictoSimpliciter)
例如:
Womenareonaveragenotasstrongasmenandlessabletoperformwellpolitically.Therefore,womencan'tpulltheirweightingovernmentwork.
点评:
虽然女性确实在政界担任较少工作,但这不意味着女性群体中所有的人都是这样。
2.过度概化(HastyGeneralization)
例如:
McDonald'sandKFCofferfoodswithlittlenutrition,andthuswecannotexpectanyfastfoodrestauranttoprovideuswithnutritiousfoods.
点评:
抒情是不能当作论证的。
6.错误类比(FalseAnalogy)
例如:
Youngchildrenarelikeflowers---flowersshouldstayawayfromterribleweathertogrow,sochildrenneedtogetridofeverythingnegative.
点评:
孩子和花朵的区别太大。
成长的过程也太复杂。
最好不要用这两者来类比。
7.虚假假设(HypothesisContrarytoFact)
例如:
IfTVwerenotinvented,todaypeoplewouldneverhavesuchwonderfulentertainmentbroughtbyTV.
点评:
因为电视已经被发明了,对于过去的否定假设后所得出的结论都是逻辑上的错误结论。
8.无关转移(RedHerring)
例如:
Manypeoplesayweneedtoexploittheouterspace,apointwhichIbelieveiswrong,becausetherearesomanypoorpeopleonEarthwhohardlymakeendsmeet.
点评:
有一个问题没解决并不代表着另一个问题不值得解决。
9.从众错误(Bandwagon)
例如:
Everyonesaysitisjustifiedtolearnasecondlanguagesowemustlearnone.
点评:
人人都说,或者大多数都说,这并不意味着该观点正确。
10.滑坡谬误(Slipperyslope)
例如:
Ifwedon'tcareabouttheenvironment,theworldwilldiein50years.
点评:
从环境问题到世界灭亡,中间有无数环节未提供论证。
ExamplesofSlipperySlope
1."Wehavetostopthetuitionincrease!
Thenextthingyouknow,they'llbecharging$40,000asemester!
"
2."TheUSshouldn'tgetinvolvedmilitarilyinothercountries.Oncethegovernmentsendsinafewtroops,itwillthensendinthousandstodie."
3."Youcannevergiveanyoneabreak.Ifyoudo,they'llwalkalloveryou."
4."We'vegottostopthemfrombanningpornography.Oncetheystartbanningoneformofliterature,theywillneverstop.Nextthingyouknow,theywillbeburningallthebooks!
"
11.appealtoemotion
Youattemptedtomanipulateanemotionalresponseinplaceofavalidorcompellingargument.
Appealstoemotionincludeappealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,andmore.It'simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherentargumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,buttheproblemandfallacyoccurswhenemotionisusedinsteadofalogicalargument,ortoobscurethefactthatnocompellingrationalreasonexistsforone'sposition.Everyone,barsociopaths,isaffectedbyemotion,andsoappealstoemotionareaverycommonandeffectiveargumenttactic,butthey'reultimatelyflawed,dishonest,andtendtomakeone'sopponentsjustifiablyemotional.
Example:
Lukedidn'twanttoeathissheep'sbrainswithchoppedliverandbrusselsprouts,buthisfathertoldhimtothinkaboutthepoor,starvingchildreninathirdworldcountrywhoweren'tfortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.
12.adhominem,personalattack人身攻击
Youattackedyouropponent'scharacterorpersonaltraitsinanattempttounderminetheirargument.
Adhominemattackscantaketheformofovertlyattackingsomebody,ormoresubtlycastingdoubtontheircharacterorpersonalattributesasawaytodiscredittheirargument.Theresultofanadhomattackcanbetounderminesomeone'scasewithoutactuallyhavingtoengagewithit.
Example:
AfterSallypresentsaneloquentandcompellingcaseforamoreequitabletaxationsystem,Samaskstheaudiencewhetherweshouldbelieveanythingfromawomanwhoisn'tmarried,wasoncearrested,andsmellsabitweird.
第七条:
诉诸虚伪
13.loadedquestion含沙射影
Youaskedaquestionthathadapresumptionbuiltintoitsothatitcouldn'tbeansweredwithoutappearingguilty.
Loadedquestionfallaciesareparticularlyeffectiveatderailingrationaldebatesbecauseoftheirinflammatorynature-therecipientoftheloadedquestioniscompelledtodefendthemselvesandmayappearflusteredoronthebackfoot.
Example:
GraceandHelenwerebothromanticallyinterestedinBrad.Oneday,withBradsittingwithinearshot,GraceaskedinaninquisitivetonewhetherHelenwashavinganyproblemswithadrughabit.
14.appealtoauthority诉诸权威
Yousaidthatbecauseanauthoritythinkssomething,itmustthereforebetrue.
It'simportanttonotethatthisfallacyshouldnotbeusedtodismisstheclaimsofexperts,orscientificconsensus.Appealstoauthorityarenotvalidarguments,butnorisitreasonabletodisregardtheclaimsofexpertswhohaveademonstrateddepthofknowledgeunlessonehasasimilarlevelofunderstandingand/oraccesstoempiricalevidence.Howeveritis,entirelypossiblethattheopinionofapersonorinstitutionofauthorityiswrong;thereforetheauthoritythatsuchapersonorinstitutionholdsdoesnothaveanyintrinsicbearinguponwhethertheirclaimsaretrueornot.
Example:
Notabletodefendhispositionthatevolution'isn'ttrue'Bobsaysthatheknowsascientistwhoalsoquestionsevolution(andpresumablyisn'taprimate).
15窃取论点.beggingthequestion
Youpresentedacircularargumentinwhichtheconclusionwasincludedinthepremise.
Thislogicallyincoherentargumentoftenarisesinsituationswherepeoplehaveanassumptionthatisveryingrained,andthereforetakenintheirmindsasagiven.Circularreasoningisbadmostlybecauseit'snotverygood.
Example:
ThewordofZorbotheGreatisflawlessandperfect.WeknowthisbecauseitsayssoinTheGreatandInfallibleBookofZorbo'sBestandMostTruestThingsthatareDefinitelyTrueandShouldNotEverBeQuestioned.
第二部分以下完整版留着资料用。
第一条:
稻草人
1.strawman/strawman
Youmisrepresentedsomeone'sargumenttomakeiteasiertoattack.
Byexaggerating,misrepresenting,orjustcompletelyfabricatingsomeone'sargument,it'smucheasiertopresentyourownpositionasbeingreasonable,butthiskindofdishonestyservestounderminehonestrationaldebate.
Example:
AfterWillsaidthatweshouldputmoremoneyintohealthandeducation,WarrenrespondedbysayingthathewassurprisedthatWillhatesourcountrysomuchthathewantstoleaveitdefencelessbycuttingmilitaryspending.
第二条:
错误归因
2.falsecause
Youpresumedthatarealorperceivedrelationshipbetweenthingsmeansthatoneisthecauseoftheother.
Manypeopleconfusecorrelation(thingshappeningtogetherorinsequence)forcausation(thatonethingactuallycausestheothertohappen).Sometimescorrelationiscoincidental,oritmaybeattributabletoacommoncause.
Example:
Pointingtoafancychart,Rogershowshowtemperatureshavebeenrisingoverthepastfewcenturies,whilstatthesametimethenumbersofpirateshavebeendecreasing;thuspiratescooltheworldandglobalwarmingisahoax.
第三条:
诉诸感情
3.appealtoemotion
Youattemptedtomanipulateanemotionalresponseinplaceofavalidorcompellingargument.
Appealstoemotionincludeappealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,andmore.It'simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherentargumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,buttheproblemandfallacyoccurswhenemotionisusedinsteadofalogicalargument,ortoobscurethefactthatnocompellingrationalreasonexistsforone'sposition.Everyone,barsociopaths,isaffectedbyemotion,andsoappealstoemotionareaverycommonandeffectiveargumenttactic,butthey'reultimatelyflawed,dishonest,andtendtomakeone'sopponentsjustifiablyemotional.
Example:
Lukedidn'twanttoeathissheep'sbrainswithchoppedliverandbrusselsprouts,buthisfathertoldhimtothinkaboutthepoor,starvingchildreninathirdworldcountrywhoweren'tfortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.
第四条:
谬误谬误
4.thefallacyfallacy
Youpresumedthatbecauseaclaimhasbeenpoorlyargued,orafallacyhasbeenmade,thattheclaimitselfmustbewrong.
Itisentirelypossibletomakeaclaimthatisfalseyetarguewithlogicalcoherencyforthatclaim,justasispossibletomakeaclaimthatistrueandjustifyitwithvariousfallaciesandpoorarguments.
Example:
RecognisingthatAmandahadcommittedafallacyinarguingthatweshouldeathealthyfoodbecauseanutritionistsaiditwaspopular,Alysesaidweshouldthereforeeatbacondoublecheeseburgerseveryday.
第五条:
滑坡谬误
5.slipperyslope
YousaidthatifweallowAtohappen,thenZwilleventuallyhappentoo,thereforeAshouldnothappen.
Theproblemwiththisreasoningisthatitavoidsengagingwiththeissueathand,andinsteadshiftsattentiontoextremehypotheticals.Becausenoproofispresentedtoshowthatsuchextremehypotheticalswillinfactoccur,thisfallacyhastheformofanappealtoemotionfallacybyleveragingfear.Ineffecttheargumentathandisunfairlytaintedbyunsubstantiatedconjecture.
Example:
ColinClosetassertsthatifweallowsame-sexcouplestomarry,thenthenextthingweknowwe'llbeallowingpeopletomarrytheirparents,theircarsandevenmonkeys.
第六条:
人身攻击
6.adhominem,personalattack
Youattackedyouropponent'scharacterorpersonaltraitsinanattempttounderminetheirargument.
Adhominemattackscantaketheformofovertlyattackingsomebody,ormoresubtlycastingdoubtontheircharacterorpersonalattributesasawaytodiscredittheirargument.Theresultofanadhomattackcanbetounderminesomeone'scasewithoutactuallyhavingtoengagewithit.
Example:
AfterSallypresentsaneloquentandcompellingcaseforamoreequitabletaxationsystem,Samaskstheaudiencewhetherweshouldbelieveanythingfromawomanwhoisn'tmarried,wasoncearrested,andsmellsabitweird
7.tuquoque(appealtohypocrisy)
Youavoidedhavingtoengagewithcriticismbyturningitbackontheaccuser-youansweredcriticismwit