《新编简明英语语言学教程》戴伟栋+何兆熊编.docx

《新编简明英语语言学教程》戴伟栋+何兆熊编.docx

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《新编简明英语语言学教程》戴伟栋+何兆熊编

Chapter1

1.Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Languageisasystem.Systematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.

Languageisarbitrary.Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.

Languageissymbolicinnature.Symbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare

2.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage（CharlesHockett）

⑴Arbitrariness

Nological（motivatedorintrinsic）connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings

①Onomatopoeicwords（whichimitatenaturalsounds）aresomewhatmotivated（English:

rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:

putong,shasha,dingdang…）

②Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…

⑵Productivity/Creativity

Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.

①Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.

②Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires

⑶Duality

①Lowerlevel----sounds（meaningless）

②Higherlevel----meaning（largerunitsofmeaning）

③Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning（words）,andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.（Wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.

⑷Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:

realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.

①Agibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyear

②Thereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.

⑸Culturaltransmission

Languageisculturallytransmitted（throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct）.

①Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.

②AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.

③Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.

3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

⑴Prescriptivevs.Descriptive

①Descriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse（modernlinguistic）

②Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage（traditionalgrammar）

⑵Synchronicvs.diachronic

①Synchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime（modernlinguistics）

②Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime（historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime）

⑶Speechvs.writing

①Speech----primarymediumoflanguage

②Writing----laterdeveloped

⑷Languevs.parole（F.deSaussure）

①Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.

②Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.

Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.

⑸Competenceandperformance（Chomsky）

①Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage

②Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication

Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.

Chapter2

1.Speechorgans:

threeimportantareas

Pharyngealcavity----thethroat;

Theoralcavity----themouth;

Nasalcavity----thenose.

2.Thediagramofspeechorgans

Lips

Tipoftongue

TeethBladeoftongue

Teethridge（alveolar）Backoftongue

HardpalateVocalcords

Softpalate（velum）

Pharyngealcavity

UvulaNasalcavity

3.Minimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical（thesame）ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.

4.Phone,phoneme,allophone

Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:

t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].

Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].

Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments

5.Thefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes,areitsdistinctivefeatures.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair

6.Suprasegmentalfeatures

⑴Stress

1Wordstress

ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:

Verb:

im’port;in’crease;re’bel;re’cord…

Noun:

’import;’increase;’rebel;’record…

Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:

Compound:

’blackbird;’greenhouse;’hotdog…

Nounphrase:

black‘bird;green’house;hot’dog…

Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:

Modifier:

’dining-room;’readingroom;’sleepingbag…

Doer:

sleeping’baby;swimming’fish;flying’plane…

②Sentencestress

Sentencestress----therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.

Note:

forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.

Heisdrivingmycar.

Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.

⑵Tone

Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.

Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.

mā妈（level）

má麻（thesecondrise）

mǎ马（thethirdrise）

mà骂（thefourthfall）

⑶Intonation

Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.

Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:

fallingtone（matteroffactstatement）

risingtone（doubtsorquestion）

thefall-risetone（impliedmessage）

Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.”

7.Themannerofarticulation

Stops/plosives:

[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];

Fricatives:

[f],[v],[s],[z],[W],[T],[F],[V],[h];

Affricates:

[tF],[dV];Liquids:

[l]（lateral）,[r];

Nasals:

[m],[n],[N];Glides/semivowels:

[w],[j].

Chapter3

1.Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning

Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.

1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir（e）+ble

3-morphemeboy+ish+ness4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir（e）+abl（e）+ity

5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism

⑴Affix

①Prefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.

un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.

2Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.

-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.

⑵Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme

①Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword（freeform）byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.

②Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.

2.Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorpheme

①Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.

②Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.

a）number:

tablesapplescars

b）person,finitenessandaspect:

talk/talks/talking/talked

c）case:

John/John’s

3.Somepoin