专八人文知识完全版语言学linguistics.docx

专八人文知识完全版语言学linguistics.docx

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专八人文知识完全版语言学linguistics

AGlossaryofLinguisticTerms

（1）

accusative  Seecase.

active  Anactivesentenceisonewhichhasabasicpatternlikethemanisrunningorthedogbitthecat,i.e.itdescribeswhatonething（thesubject）does,oftentoanotherthing（theobject）.Theverbinanactivesentencecanbesaidtobeintheactivemood.Seealsopassive.

adjective  Awordwhichqualifiesorfurtherdescribesanounornounphrase.ExamplesarecolourlessandgreenwhichqualifyideasinColourlessgreenideassleepfuriously.

adverb  Awordwhichqualifiesorfurtherdescribesaverb.ExamplesarefuriouslywhichqualifiessleepinColourlessgreenideassleepfuriously,orintenselywhichqualifiesstaredinHestaredatmeintensely.Adverbscanalsoqualifyadjectives,e.g.astonishinglyinanastonishinglyvividcolour,orotheradverbs,e.g.extremelyinthephraseextremelyslowly.ManyEnglishadverbsareformedfromanadjectiveplustheending-ly.Wordslikeverywhichcanonlyqualifyadjectivesoradverbsbutnotverbsaresometimescalledadverbs,butareperhapsbestputinaseparatecategory.

affricative  Anaffricativeisaphonewhichcanbethoughtofasaveryrapid,blendedsequenceofastopandafricative.Thestopandfricativemustbeproducedinaverysimilarpositionsinthemouth.AnEnglishexampleisthe'chsound'inchoose,whichislikeasequenceofa'tsound'（astop）anda'shsound'（africative）.Thephraseswhiteshoesandwhychoose?

soundverysimilarwhenspokenrapidly.IntheIPAanaffricativeisrepresentedbythecorrespondingstopsymbolfollowedbythefricativesymbol.ItisimportanttonotethatthetwosymbolsrepresentaSINGLEphone.

agreement  Thesyntaxofanaturallanguageoftenrequiressomewordsinasentencetosharecertaingrammaticalfeatures,whichcanshowupaschangesinthemorphologyofthewords.Thisiscalledagreement;thewordsaresaidtoagreeintherelevantfeature（s）.Forexample,inEnglish,determinersandnounsmustagreeinnumberwithinanounphrase.Thusthiscatisacceptablesincethisandcataresingular,butthesecatisunacceptablesincetheseispluralbutcatissingular.

allophone  Eachofthesetofphoneswhichcorrespondtoasinglephonemeofalanguageiscalledanallophone.Allophonesofthesamephonemegenerallyoccurindifferentcontextsandneverdistinguishonewordfromanother.Asanexample,the'tsounds'inteaandtreeconstituteallophonesofoneEnglish/t/phoneme.Theproductionofthetwosoundsdiffersinthatspeaker'stongueisinaslightlydifferentplace.Aspeechspectrographwillshowaresultingsounddifference.However,noEnglishwordsdifferONLYinthesubstitutionofoneofthese'tsounds'fortheother.

anaphora  Somewordsinasentencehavelittleornomeaningoftheirownbutinsteadrefertootherwordsinthesameorothersentences.Thisprocessiscalledanaphora.Pronounsareagoodexample.Considerthesentences:

Londonhadsnowyesterday.Itfelltoadepthofametre.TounderstandthesecondsentenceitisnecessarytoidentifyitwithsnowratherthanLondonoryesterday.Englishallowsvariousformsofanaphorawithverbs.Forexample,inIwantedtofinishtoday,butIcouldn'tdoit,thewordsdoitrefertofinishtodayandhencecanbecalledanaphoric.

approximant  Anapproximantisaphoneinwhichthetonguepartlyclosestheairway,butnotenoughtocauseafricative.ExamplesinEnglisharethephonesthatbeginlapandwoo.Approximantscanbedividedintoliquidsandglides.Approximants（especiallyglides）havesomesimilaritiestovowels.

article  InEnglish,a/anandthearecalledtheindefiniteanddefinitearticlesrespectively.Seealsodeterminer.

aspect（ofaverb）  Verbscanshownotonlythetimelocationofanaction（bygrammaticaltense）,butalsofeaturessuchaswhethertheactionisthoughtofascompletedorcontinuing.Achangeinaverbwhichshowssuchafeatureisoftencalledanaspectoftheverb.CompareatewithwaseatinginHeaterapidlywhenIcameinandHewaseatingrapidlywhenIcamein.Bothrefertoeventsinthepasttime;thedifferenceliesintheimpliedrelationshipbetweentheactionsof'eating'and'comingin'.Syntactically,Englishhastwomarkedaspects:

progressiveandperfect.Theprogressiveaspectisformedbyusingtheauxiliarybeandtheverbending-ing.Forexample,Iameatingitnowimpliesboththatthetimeisthepresentandthatthe'eating'iscurrentlyinprogress.Theperfectaspectisformedbyusingtheauxiliaryhaveandtheappropriateverbending（usually-enor-ed）:

e.g.Ihaveeatenitnow,whichimpliesboththatthetimeisthepresentandthatthe'eating'isfinished.AnEnglishverbcanshownoaspect（e.g.runsorran）,progressiveaspect（e.g.isrunningorwasrunning）,perfectaspect（e.g.hasrunorhadrun）orbothperfectandprogressiveaspects（e.g.hasbeenrunningorhadbeenrunning）.ThetablebelowshowsthepossiblecombinationsoftenseandaspectinEnglishverbs.

Tense

Present

Past

Aspect

None

Irun

Iran

Progressive

Iamrunning

Iwasrunning

Perfect

Ihaverun

Ihadrun

PerfectProgressive

Ihavebeenrunning

Ihadbeenrunning

aspiration  Ifaphoneisaccompaniedbya'puffofair'itcanbesaidtobeaspirated.The'psound'intheEnglishwordpitisaspiratedandisthusslightlydifferentfromthe'psound'inspit,whichisnotaspirated.

assimilation  Particularlyinrapidspeechthereisatendencyforneighbouringphonestobecomemoresimilar,presumablytomakepronunciationeasier.Forexample,althoughthewordsAstonandAsdaarebothwrittenwithans,thesecondwordisnormallypronouncedasifspeltAzda.Thereasonseemstobethat[s]and[t]arebothvoiceless,whereas[z]and[d]arebothvoiced.Thesequencefricativefollowedbystopiseasiertosayifbothhavethesamevoicing.

ATN=AugmentedTransitionNetwork.

auxiliary  InEnglish,oneofasmallsetofverb-likewordswhichcanprecedeamainverbinaverbphrase.Theauxiliariesandverbsaresometimessaidtoforma'verbgroup'or'compoundverb'.ExamplesofauxiliariesaredoinIreallydonotknow,ormayinImayseehimtomorrow.Auxiliarieshaveverb-likeproperties,andmayshowchangesinnumber,personandtense.Somewords（e.g.have）canbeeitheranauxiliary（e.g.Ihaveseenhim）oraverb（e.g.Ihaveacar）.

case  Nouns,nounphrasesandpronounsplaydifferentrolesinsentences.Theserolescorrespondtochangesofcaseinmanylanguages.Consider,forexample,thesentencesShesawhimandHesawher.Thewordssheandheareusedwhentheyformthesubjectofthesentenceandaresaidtobeinthenominativecase.Sheandhemustbechangedtoherandhimrespectivelywhentheyformtheobjectofthesentenceandaresaidtobeintheaccusativecase.ChangesduetocasearerestrictedtopronounsinEnglish,butinotherlanguages（e.g.Russian,ModernGreek）,mostnouns,pronouns,articles,adjectives,etc.willvaryaccordingtocase.

circumstantialtheta-role  Seethetarole.

determiner（det）  Thedefiniteandindefinitearticlesplusasmallsetofothersimilarwords（e.g.genitivepronouns）whichqualifynounsornounphrasescanbegroupedasdeterminers.Examplesofdeterminersarethis,that,my.AnEnglishnounphrasealwayscontainsatmostonedeterminer;singularnounphrasesgenerallyrequireexactlyonedeterminer.Semantically,theydeterminethataparticularinstanceofthenounisbeingreferred（back）to.Forexample,There'samanatthedoor--thewordaintroducesamanintotheconversation.TellthemanI'llcomeinaminute--thewordtherefersbacktothepreviouslymentionedman.

Nounphrasesinthegenitiveactasdeterminers.ThusinIsawtheoldlady'scat,thegenitivenounphrasetheoldlady'scanbereplacedbythesingleworddeterminerher.

dialect  Generallydialectsofalanguagearemoresimilarthandifferentlanguages.However,whatisadialectandwhatisalanguageisoftenapoliticalratherthanalinguisticquestion.ThedivisionofSerbo-Croat,thecommonlanguageofformerYugoslavia,intotwolanguages,SerbianandCroatian,showsthisrathersharply.AfurtherexampleofverysimilarlanguageswhichmightbecalleddialectsofthesamelanguageareDutch（spokenintheNetherlands）andFlemish（spokeninnorth-westernBelgium.Ontheotherhand,inChinatherearelanguageswhicharemutuallyun-intelligiblewhenspokenbutareoftencalleddialectsofoneChineselanguage.Itisimportanttonotethatalthoughsomedialectshavemoresocialprestigeinacountrythanothers,thissaysnothingabouttheirlinguisticqualities.

diphthong  Ifthetonguemovessignificantlyduringtheproductionofavowelphone,theresultisadiphthong.Adiphthongsoundslikearapid,blendedsequenceoftwoseparatevowels.AnexampleinEnglishisthevowelsoundinthewordkite,whichislikearapidcombinationofakindof'asound'andakindof'isound'.IntheIPAadiphthongisrepresentedbytwovowelsymbols.ItisimportanttonotethatthetwosymbolsrepresentaSINGLEphone.

directobject  Seeobject.

ellipsis  Atechnicaltermforleavingoutwordsinsentences.Forexample,inBrianatetheice-creamandJudythepeaches,thereisellipsis,sincethewordateisomittedafterJudy.

feature  Seesemanticfeature.

feminine  Seegender.

fricative  Ifduringtheproductionofaphone,airismadetopassthroughanarrowpassage,a'friction'soundorfricativeisproduced（i.e.amore-or-less'hissing'sound）.Englishexamplesarethe'fsound'infeeorthe'shsound'inshe.

gender  Insomelanguages（butnotEnglish）,nounsfallintoasmallnumberofclasseswhichrequirechangesinthearticles,adjectives