专八人文 语言学概编.docx

专八人文 语言学概编.docx

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专八人文语言学概编

EnglishLinguistics

1.Introduction

1.1WhatisLanguage?

1）"Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols."--Sapir's

2）"Languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols."--Hal's

3）"FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof（finiteorinfinite）sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements."--Chomsky's

Langueisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

1.2WhatisLinguistics?

Linguisticsisascientificstudywhichbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.

1.3TheScopeofLinguistics

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Thisdealswithbasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy.Thespecificsubcategoriesoflinguisticsarephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatic,sociolinguistic,psycholinguistics,andappliedlinguistics.

1.4PrescriptiveandDescriptive

Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor"correctandstandard"behaviorsinusinglanguage,itissaidtobeprescriptive.

1.5SynchronicandDiachronic

Languageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageinsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimesisadiachronicstudy.

1.6FiveDesignFeaturesofLanghage

1）Arbitrariness-nological（motivatedorintrinsic）connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.Onomatopoeicwords（whichimitatenaturalsounds）aresomewhatmotivated（English:

rumble,crackle,bang...;Chinese:

putong,shasha,dingdang...）.

2）Productivity/creativity--Peculiartohumanlanguages,usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.

3）Duality--Lower-levelsounds（meaningless）andHigher-levelmeaning（largerunitsofmeaning）.Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning（words）,andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.

4）Displacement--Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:

realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.

5）Cuhuraltransmission-Languageisculturallytransmitted（throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct）.

2.Phonetics

2.1WhatisPhonology?

Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.

2.2WhatareThethreeBranchesofPhonetics?

Thesethreebranchesofphoneticsarelabeledarticulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,andacousticphonetics.

1）Articulatoryphonetics--fromthespeakers'pointofview,"howspeakersproducespeechsounds";

2）Auditoryphonetics--fromthehearers'pointofview,"howsoundsareperceived";

3）Acousticphonetics--fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.

2.3OrgansofSpeech

Speechorgansconsistofthreeimportantareas:

1）Pharyngealcavity--thethroat;

2）Theoralcavity--themouth;

3）Nasalcavity--thenose.

2.4WhatisOrthographicRepresentationofSpeechSounds?

ThestandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（1PA）.ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Therearetwocategories-broadtranscriptionwhichisusedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,andnarrowtranscriptionwhichisusedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics.

2.5WhataretheMajorArticulatoryVariables?

Theyarevoicing（voiced/voiceless）,nasality（nasal/non-nasal）,andaspiration（aspirated/unaspirated）.

2.6ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSounds

Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:

VowelsandConsonants.

3.Phonology

3.1WhatisPhonology?

Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.

3.2WhataretheDistinctionofPhoneticsandPhonology?

Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage--thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:

howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.

Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

3.3WhatarePhone,Phoneme,andAllophone?

Aphonemeansaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.

Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext.Thesmallestphoneticunitinalanguagethatiscapableofconveyingadistinctioninmeaning,asthemofmatandthebofbatinEnglish.音位，音素：

语言中最小的语音单位，可以表达意义上的区别，如英语里mat中的m和bat中的b

Allophonesarethephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenviromnents.Itisapredictablephoneticvariantofaphoneme.Forexample,theaspiratedtoftop,theunaspiratedtofstop,andthett（pronouncedd）ofbatterareallophonesoftheEnglishphonemet.音位变体：

音素的可测语音变体，如送气音t在top中，非送气音t在stop中，还有tt（发成d）在batter中，都属于英语音素t的变体

3.4WhatisPhonemicContrast?

Phonemiccontrastmeansdifferentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[but]and[put]."

3.5WhatisComplementaryDistribution?

Complementarydistributionmeansallophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementary

distribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.

dark[1]andclear[1],aspirated[p]andunaspirated[p].

3.6WhatisMinimalPair?

Minimalpairmeanswhentwodifferentformsareidentical（thesame）ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.bitandpit.

3.7SomeRulesofPhonology

Sequentialrules,assimilationrulesanddeletionrules.

3.8WhatisSequentialRules?

Sequentialrulesaretherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,

e.g.inEnglish.'"kbi1"mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[1]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.

a）thefirstphonememustbe/s/,

b）thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,

c）thethirdphonememustbe/1/or/r/or/w/.

[ŋ]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishorStandardChinese.

3.9WhatisAssimilation?

Assimilationrulemeansassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby"copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g./i:

/isnasalizedinwordslikebeen,andgreen.

3.10WhatisDeletion?

Ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.

3.11WhatareSuprasegmentalFeatures?

Suprasegmentalfeaturesmeansthephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments（largerthanphoneme）:

stress,toneandintonation.

4.Morphology

4.1WhatisMorphology?

Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.

4.2WhataretheTwoClassesofWords?

Openclasswords--contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik（amemberoftheBeatGeneration）,hacker,email,internet.

Closedclasswords-grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.

4.3WhatareMorphemes?

Themostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.语素：

一种含有一个单词的有意义的语言单位，如人或一词素，如-ed在单词walked中，不能被划分为更小的有意义单位.Therearetwotypesofmorphemes:

boundmorphemesandfreemorphemes.Freemorphemeisonethatmayconstituteaword（freeform）byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorphemeisonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas"-s"in"dogs","al"in"national","dis-"in"disclose","ed"in"recorded",etc.

4.4WhatareAffix?

Prefixismorphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis-,anti-,ir-,etc,andsuffixmeansmorphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-hess,-able,-tive,tion,etc.Traditionallly,prefixeshavebeencalledboundmorphemes.

4.5WhatareDerivationalMorphemeandInflectionalMorpheme?

Derivationalmorphemes--themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern--modernize,length--lengthen,fool--foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes-themorphemeswhichareforthemostpart