《新编简明英语语言学教程》戴伟栋+何兆熊编Word文档格式.docx
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②Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;
beesdonot“talk〞aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires
⑶Duality
①Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)
②Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)
③Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(Wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.
⑷Displacement
Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:
realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.
①Agibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyear
②Thereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.
⑸Culturaltransmission
Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;
ratherthanbyinstinct).
①Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.
②AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.
③Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.
3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics
⑴Prescriptivevs.Descriptive
①Descriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)
②Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct〞linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)
⑵Synchronicvs.diachronic
①Synchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)
②Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)
⑶Speechvs.writing
①Speech----primarymediumoflanguage
②Writing----laterdeveloped
⑷Languevs.parole(F.deSaussure)
①Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.
②Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.
Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.
⑸Competenceandperformance(Chomsky)
①Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage
②Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication
Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.
Chapter2
1.Speechorgans:
threeimportantareas
Pharyngealcavity----thethroat;
Theoralcavity----themouth;
Nasalcavity----thenose.
2.Thediagramofspeechorgans
Lips
Tipoftongue
TeethBladeoftongue
Teethridge(alveolar)Backoftongue
HardpalateVocalcords
Softpalate(velum)
Pharyngealcavity
UvulaNasalcavity
3.Minimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.
4.Phone,phoneme,allophone
Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:
t]&
[bIt],[spIt]&
[spIt].
Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;
itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;
anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].
Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments
5.Thefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes,areitsdistinctivefeatures.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair
6.Suprasegmentalfeatures
⑴Stress
1Wordstress
ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:
Verb:
im’port;
in’crease;
re’bel;
re’cord…
Noun:
’import;
’increase;
’rebel;
’record…
Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:
Compound:
’blackbird;
’greenhouse;
’hotdog…
Nounphrase:
black‘bird;
green’house;
hot’dog…
Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:
Modifier:
’dining-room;
’readingroom;
’sleepingbag…
Doer:
sleeping’baby;
swimming’fish;
flying’plane…
②Sentencestress
Sentencestress----therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.
Note:
forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.
Heisdrivingmycar.
Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.
⑵Tone
Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.
Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.
mā妈(level)
má
麻(thesecondrise)
mǎ马(thethirdrise)
mà
骂(thefourthfall)
⑶Intonation
Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.
Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:
fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)
risingtone(doubtsorquestion)
thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)
Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.〞
7.Themannerofarticulation
Stops/plosives:
[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];
Fricatives:
[f],[v],[s],[z],[W],[T],[F],[V],[h];
Affricates:
[tF],[dV];
Liquids:
[l](lateral),[r];
Nasals:
[m],[n],[N];
Glides/semivowels:
[w],[j].
Chapter3
1.Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning
Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.
1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble
3-morphemeboy+ish+ness4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity
5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism
⑴Affix
①Prefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.
un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.
2Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.
-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.
⑵Freemorpheme&
boundmorpheme
①Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.
②Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s〞in“dogs〞,“al〞in“national〞,“dis-〞in“disclose〞,“ed〞in“recorded〞,etc.
2.Derivationalmorpheme&
inflectionalmorpheme
①Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.
②Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;
theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.
a)number:
tablesapplescars
b)person,finitenessandaspect:
talk/talks/talking/talked
c)case:
John/John’s
3.Somepoint