RusselWord文档格式.docx

RusselWord文档格式.docx

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Indailylife,weassumeascertainmanythingswhich,onacloserscrutiny,arefoundtobesofullofapparentcontradictionsthatonlyagreatamountofthoughtenablesustoknowwhatitisthatwereallymaybelieve.Inthesearchforcertainty,itisnaturaltobeginwithourpresentexperiences,andinsomesense,nodoubt,knowledgeistobederivedfromthem.Butanystatementastowhatitisthatourimmediateexperiencesmakeusknowisverylikelytobewrong.ItseemstomethatIamnowsittinginachair,atatableofacertainshape,onwhichIseesheetsofpaperwithwritingorprint.ByturningmyheadIseeoutofthewindowbuildingsandcloudsandthesun.Ibelievethatthesunisaboutninety-threemillionmilesfromtheearth;

thatitisahotglobemanytimesbiggerthantheearth;

that,owingtotheearth'

srotation,itriseseverymorning,andwillcontinuetodosoforanindefinitetimeinthefuture.Ibelievethat,ifanyothernormalpersoncomesintomyroom,hewillseethesamechairsandtablesandbooksandpapersasIsee,andthatthetablewhichIseeisthesameasthetablewhichIfeelpressingagainstmyarm.Allthisseemstobesoevidentastobehardlyworthstating,exceptinanswertoamanwhodoubtswhetherIknowanything.Yetallthismaybereasonablydoubted,andallofitrequiresmuchcarefuldiscussionbeforewecanbesurethatwehavestateditinaformthatiswhollytrue.

Tomakeourdifficultiesplain,letusconcentrateattentiononthetable.Totheeyeitisoblong,brownandshiny,tothetouchitissmoothandcoolandhard;

whenItapit,itgivesoutawoodensound.Anyoneelsewhoseesandfeelsandhearsthetablewillagreewiththisdescription,sothatitmightseemasifnodifficultywouldarise;

butassoonaswetrytobemorepreciseourtroublesbegin.AlthoughIbelievethatthetableis'

really'

ofthesamecolourallover,thepartsthatreflectthelightlookmuchbrighterthantheotherparts,andsomepartslookwhitebecauseofreflectedlight.Iknowthat,ifImove,thepartsthatreflectthelightwillbedifferent,sothattheapparentdistributionofcoloursonthetablewillchange.Itfollowsthatifseveralpeoplearelookingatthetableatthesamemoment,notwoofthemwillseeexactlythesamedistributionofcolours,becausenotwocanseeitfromexactlythesamepointofview,andanychangeinthepointofviewmakessomechangeinthewaythelightisreflected.

Formostpracticalpurposesthesedifferencesareunimportant,buttothepaintertheyareall-important:

thepainterhastounlearnthehabitofthinkingthatthingsseemtohavethecolourwhichcommonsensesaysthey'

have,andtolearnthehabitofseeingthingsastheyappear.Herewehavealreadythebeginningofoneofthedistinctionsthatcausemosttroubleinphilosophy--thedistinctionbetween'

appearance'

and'

reality'

betweenwhatthingsseemtobeandwhattheyare.Thepainterwantstoknowwhatthingsseemtobe,thepracticalmanandthephilosopherwanttoknowwhattheyare;

butthephilosopher'

swishtoknowthisisstrongerthanthepracticalman'

s,andismoretroubledbyknowledgeastothedifficultiesofansweringthequestion.

Toreturntothetable.Itisevidentfromwhatwehavefound,thatthereisnocolourwhichpreeminentlyappearstobethecolourofthetable,orevenofanyoneparticularpartofthetable--itappearstobeofdifferentcoloursfromdifferentpointsofview,andthereisnoreasonforregardingsomeoftheseasmorereallyitscolourthanothers.Andweknowthatevenfromagivenpointofviewthecolourwillseemdifferentbyartificiallight,ortoacolour-blindman,ortoamanwearingbluespectacles,whileinthedarktherewillbenocolouratall,thoughtotouchandhearingthetablewillbeunchanged.Thiscolourisnotsomethingwhichisinherentinthetable,butsomethingdependinguponthetableandthespectatorandthewaythelightfallsonthetable.When,inordinarylife,wespeakofthecolourofthetable,weonlymeanthesortofcolourwhichitwillseemtohavetoanormalspectatorfromanordinarypointofviewunderusualconditionsoflight.Buttheothercolourswhichappearunderotherconditionshavejustasgoodarighttobeconsideredreal;

andtherefore,toavoidfavouritism,wearecompelledtodenythat,initself,thetablehasanyoneparticularcolour.

Thesamethingappliestothetexture.Withthenakedeyeonecanseethegram,butotherwisethetablelookssmoothandeven.Ifwelookedatitthroughamicroscope,weshouldseeroughnessesandhillsandvalleys,andallsortsofdifferencesthatareimperceptibletothenakedeye.Whichoftheseisthe'

real'

table?

Wearenaturallytemptedtosaythatwhatweseethroughthemicroscopeismorereal,butthatinturnwouldbechangedbyastillmorepowerfulmicroscope.If,then,wecannottrustwhatweseewiththenakedeye,whyshouldwetrustwhatweseethroughamicroscope?

Thus,again,theconfidenceinoursenseswithwhichwebegandesertsus.

Theshapeofthetableisnobetter.Weareallinthehabitofjudgingastothe'

shapesofthings,andwedothissounreflectinglythatwecometothinkweactuallyseetherealshapes.But,infact,asweallhavetolearnifwetrytodraw,agiventhinglooksdifferentinshapefromeverydifferentpointofview.Ifourtableis'

rectangular,itwilllook,fromalmostallpointsofview,asifithadtwoacuteanglesandtwoobtuseangles.Ifoppositesidesareparallel,theywilllookasiftheyconvergedtoapointawayfromthespectator;

iftheyareofequallength,theywilllookasifthenearersidewerelonger.Allthesethingsarenotcommonlynoticedinlookingatatable,becauseexperiencehastaughtustoconstructthe'

shapefromtheapparentshape,andthe'

shapeiswhatinterestsusaspracticalmen.Butthe'

shapeisnotwhatwesee;

itissomethinginferredfromwhatwesee.Andwhatweseeisconstantlychanginginshapeaswe,moveabouttheroom;

sothathereagainthesensesseemnottogiveusthetruthaboutthetableitself,butonlyabouttheappearanceofthetable.

Similardifficultiesarisewhenweconsiderthesenseoftouch.Itistruethatthetablealwaysgivesusasensationofhardness,andwefeelthatitresistspressure.Butthesensationweobtaindependsuponhowhardwepressthetableandalsouponwhatpartofthebodywepresswith;

thusthevarioussensationsduetovariouspressuresorvariouspartsofthebodycannotbesupposedtorevealdirectlyanydefinitepropertyofthetable,butatmosttobesignsofsomepropertywhichperhapscausesallthesensations,butisnotactuallyapparentinanyofthem.Andthesameappliesstillmoreobviouslytothesoundswhichcanbeelicitedbyrappingthetable.

Thusitbecomesevidentthattherealtable,ifthereisone,isnotthesameaswhatweimmediatelyexperiencebysightortouchorhearing.Therealtable,ifthereisone,isnotimmediatelyknowntousatall,butmustbeaninferencefromwhatisimmediatelyknown.Hence,twoverydifficultquestionsatoncearise;

namely,

（1）Istherearealtableatall?

（2）Ifso,whatsortofobjectcanitbe?

Itwillhelpusinconsideringthesequestionstohaveafewsimpletermsofwhichthemeaningisdefiniteandclear.Letusgivethenameof'

sense-data'

tothethingsthatareimmediatelyknowninsensation:

suchthingsascolours,sounds,smells,hardnesses,roughnesses,andsoon.Weshallgivethename'

sensation'

totheexperienceofbeingimmediatelyawareofthesethings.Thus,wheneverweseeacolour,wehaveasensationofthecolour,butthecolouritselfisasense-datum,notasensation.Thecolouristhatofwhichweareimmediatelyaware,andtheawarenessitselfisthesensation.Itisplainthatifwearetoknowanythingaboutthetable,itmustbebymeansofthesense-data--browncolour,oblongshape,smoothness,etc.--whichweassociatewiththetable;

but,forthereasonswhichhavebeengiven,wecannotsaythatthetableisthesense-data,oreventhatthesense-dataaredirectlypropertiesofthetable.Thusaproblemarisesastotherelationofthesense-datatotherealtable,supposingthereissuchathing.

Therealtable,ifitexists,wewillcalla'

physicalobject'

.Thuswehavetoconsidertherelationofsense-datatophysicalobjects.Thecollectionofallphysicalobjectsiscalled'

matter'

.Thusourtwoquestionsmaybere-statedasfollows:

（1）Isthereanysuchthingasmatter?

（2）Ifso,whatisitsnature?

ThephilosopherwhofirstbroughtprominentlyforwardthereasonsforregardingtheimmediateobjectsofoursensesasnotexistingindependentlyofuswasBishopBerkeley（1685-1753）.HisThreeDialoguesbetweenHylasandPhilonous,inOppositiontoScepticsandAtheists,undertaketoprovethatthereisnosuchthingasmatteratall,andthattheworldconsistsofnothingbutmindsandtheirideas.Hylashashithertobelievedinmatter,b