McFadzeanEncouraging creative thinkingWord文件下载.docx

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（1999）:

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Abstract（summary）

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Inordertodevelopmoreinnovativeproducts,processandservices,organizationsmustencouragetheiremployeestothinkmorecreatively.Thepurposeofthisarticleistoexplorecreativeproblemsolvingandtopresentamodelthatcanhelpfacilitatorsandteammemberschooseanappropriatetechniquefortheirsituation.

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∙Jumptofirsthit

ElspethMcFadzean:

HenleyManagementCollege,Henley-on-Thames,UK

Introduction

Inordertodevelopinnovativeproducts,servicesorprocedures,organisationsmustencouragetheiremployeestobecomemorecreative.Onemethodofundertakingthisistoutilisecreativeproblem-solvingtechniques（VanGundy,1992;

VonOech,1983;

Carr,1994;

deBono,1992;

RobinsonandStern,1997）.Therearenumeroustypesofcreativeproblem-solvingtechniques.VanGundy（1992）hasclassifiedtheseintotechniquesthatareusedbyindividualsandthosethatareutilisedbygroups.Inaddition,hehasalsodividedthemintotechniquesthatuserelatedstimuliandthosethatuseunrelatedstimuli.Perhapsthemostpopulartechniqueisthatofbrainstorming,wheregroupmemberscommunicateideastothefacilitatorwhowritesthemdownonaboardorflipchart.VanGundy（1988）,McFadzean（1998a）andCouger（1995）havealsodescribedcountlessothercreativeproblem-solvingtechniques.Thepurposeofthispaperistodevelopaframeworkthatwillenableteammembersand/orfacilitatorstochoosewhichisthemostappropriatetechniqueforthemtoutilise.Inaddition,thepaperwillalsodiscusstheimplicationsforchoosingparticulartechniquesandwilldescribethestrengthsandweaknessesofthesemethods.Thenextsectionofthispaper,therefore,willpresentthecreativeproblem-solvingframework.Theremainderofthearticlewilldescribesomeofthetechniquesandtheirimplications.Finally,asummaryofthepaperispresented.

Thecreativitycontinuum

Newelletal.（1962,pp.65-66）havedefinedcreativityasfollows:

"

Problemsolvingiscalledcreativetotheextentthatoneormoreofthefollowingconditionsaresatisfied:

1Theproductofthinkinghasnoveltyandvalue（eitherforthethinkerorforhis/herculture）."

2Thethinkingisunconventional,inthesensethatitrequiresmodificationorrejectionofpreviouslyacceptedideas."

3Thethinkingrequireshighmotivationandpersistence,takingplaceeitheroveraconsiderablespanoftime（continuouslyorintermittently）orathighintensity."

4Theproblemasinitiallyposedwasvagueandill-definedsothatpartofthetaskwastoformulatetheproblemitself."

NagasundaramandBostrom（1993）andGryskiewicz（1980;

1987）suggestthatcreativityoccurswhennewrelationshipsbetweenexistingelementsoccurand/orwhennewelementsarebroughtin.Forexample,camerashaveexperiencedalotofchangesduringthepastfewyears.Today,wehavecompact,disposable,polaroid,digitalandvideocameras.Thedisposablecamerahasbeendevelopedbychangingtherelationshipsbetweenexistingelements.Insteadofhavingaplasticcase,disposablecamerashavecardboardcases.Thedigitalcamera,however,hasbeendevelopedbybringinginnewelements,intheformofnewtechnology.Thesecamerasnolongerusefilmtostorepictures.Instead,memorycardsordiskscanbeinsertedintothecamera.Theimagesarecapturedandcanthenbeeasilytransferredtoacomputer.

AccordingtoMcFadzean（1998b）,Couger（1995）,VonOech（1983）anddeBono（1992）,creativitycanbeencouragedbychangingaperson'

smindsetorparadigm.Kuhn（1970,p.10）introducedtheconceptoftheparadigmtothescientificworld.Hesuggestedthatscientificparadigmsareacceptedexamplesofactualscientificpractices,exampleswhichincludelaw,theory,application,andinstrumentationtogether-[that]providemodelsfromwhichspringparticularcoherenttraditionsofscientificresearch.Smith（1975）definesaparadigmasasharedsetofassumptions,awaypeopleperceivetheworldandawayofexplainingwhatisgoingonroundaboutthem.Moreover,Smithsuggeststhatifpeopleareinthemiddleofaparadigmitisdifficultforthemtoperceivethesituationinanyotherway.Creativeproblemsolving,however,canhelppeopletomodifyorevenchangetheirparadigm（McFadzean,1998b;

deBono,1992）.

McFadzean（1998b）andVanGundy（1988）suggestthatparadigmchangescanbemadebyusingthreedifferentstrategies,namely:

1.association,

2.stimulation,and

3.expression.

Theobjectiveofbrainstorming,forexample,istodevelopasmanyideasaspossible.AccordingtoOsborn（1957）,thisisbecausethequantityofideaswillultimatelyyieldquality.Inotherwords,themoreideasgenerated,themorelikelyitisthatthegroupwillproducesomegoodqualityideas.Inaddition,thereshouldbenocriticismduringthisphase.Thisisbecausearelaxedandjudgement-freeatmosphereencouragestheflowofideaswhichwouldbeseverelyimpededifparticipantswereallowedtoconveytheirjudgementoneachidea（Majaro,1988）.Thefacilitatormustalsoencouragethegrouptocombineandimprovetheirideas.Theparticipantsshouldbuildonpreviousideas-calledpiggybacking-andtolookforwaysofcombiningtwoormoreideastogenerateathirdideanotthoughtofpreviously.Piggybackingisaformofassociation.Theparticipantscanundertakepiggybackingwhenevertheyseefit.Thisisthereforefreeassociation.

Theideasdevelopedduringabrainstormingsessionareusedtosparkoffnewideas.Inotherwords,participantsarestimulatedbyinformationthatisrelatedtotheproblemorsituation（McFadzean,1996）.Inaddition,brainstorminganditsderivatives（e.g.brainwritingandnominalgrouptechnique）utiliseeitherverbalorwrittenexpression.Thismeansthatideasarecommunicatedbywritingthemdownorspeakingtotherestofthegroup.ThesetypesoftechniquesareshowngraphicallyinFigure1.

McFadzean（1996）andGarfieldetal.（1997）haveshownthatthesetechniquesdonotnecessarilyencourageparticipantstomodifyorchangetheirparadigms.McFadzean（1996）,however,hasshownthatbychangingthemethodsofassociation,stimulationandexpression,participantscanbeencouragedtochallengetheirparadigms.Forexample,objectstimulationutilisesforcedassociationandunrelatedstimuli.Here,participantsareaskedtodescribeobjects.Thesedescriptionsarethenusedasunrelatedstimulitoencouragethedevelopmentofnewandnovelideas.Inotherwords,theyareforciblylinkedbacktotheproblem.Forinstance,acompanycouldusethistechniquetodevelopnovelideasforanewmarketingstrategy.Theparticipantscouldchooseacompanyoutsidetheirownindustrysectoranddescribethemarketingtechniquesthattheythinkaresuccessful.Participantsfromasupermarket,forexample,couldlistthemarketingstrategiesdevelopedbyotherfirmssuchasVirginAirways,DisneyWorld,BT,theRoyalBankofScotland,etc.Thesestrategiescanthenbelinkedbackanddevelopedsothattheycanfitinwiththesupermarket'

soverallstrategy.Forexample,supermarketsarenowofferingfinancialservices,whichwerepreviouslyonlyofferedbybanks.

Objectstimulationthereforeencouragesparticipantstostretchtheirgivenparadigmbyutilisingunrelatedstimuliandforcedassociation.ThisisshowninFigure2.

Paradigmscanbebroken,however,byusingunlimitedmethodsofexpressionaswellasunrelatedstimuliandforcedassociation.AnexampleofaparadigmbreakingtechniqueisRichPictures（McFadzean,1998a;

McFadzeanetal.,1998）.Here,participantsareaskedtodrawapictureofwheretheyseetheircompanyintenyears'

time.Theyarethenaskedtodrawapictureofhowtheyseethecompanyatthepresenttime.Next,eachparticipantdescribesthetwopicturesandgivesreasonsforwhyhe/shehasusedtheseparticularimagestorepresentthecompany.Thetechniquecandrawoutalotofinformationthatwouldnotnecessarilyhavebeenrevealedusingmoreconventionaltechniques.Inaddition,theparticipantscanseeinstantaneouslythedifferencesbetweenthepictureofthefutureandthepictureofthepresent.Thestimulidevelopedfromthesepicturescant