英语语法教案1Word文档下载推荐.docx

英语语法教案1Word文档下载推荐.docx

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2Informationstructure

2.1Givenandnewinformation

2.2Informationfocus

3Postponement

3.1Passivevoice

3.2Extraposition

3.2.1Extraposedclausalsubject

3.2.2Extraposedclausalobject

3.3Discontinuity

3.4Othertypesofpostponement

4Fronting

5Inversion

5.1Partialinversion

5.2Completeinversion

6Cleaving

6.1Cleftsentence

6.2Pseudo-cleftsentence

7Existentialsentence

7.1Informationstructureofexistentialsentence

7.2Grammaticalfeaturesofexistentialsentence

三、总结：

通过学习本章，学生了解了英语中信息组织的原则和方法，使得学生更好地把语法和语篇联系起来。

附件：

Inthepreviouschapters,wehavebeenmainlyconcernedwiththewaysinwhichthesentencecomponentsofvariouslevelsareputtogethertoformgrammaticalsequences.Nowisthetimeforustostudythewaysinwhichsentencesareconstructedtoconveyamessage.Tospeakandwritesensiblyisjustasimportantastospeakandwritegrammatically.

Languageisacommunicationsystem.Ourcommunicationusuallyinvolvestwoparties:

oneproducingthemessage（i.e.thespeakerorthewriter）andtheotherreceivingthemessage（i.e.thelistenerorthereader）.Theproducerwouldtrytoguidethereceivertotheproperunderstandingofhismessage;

thereceiver,inthemeantime,wouldtrytoavailhimselfofthemessageinamostdirectway.Whenwemakeastatement,ifitisinformative,weexpressapropositionwhichprovidestheanswertoeitheranexplicitorimplicitquestion.Ifthequestionisexplicit,thereisusuallynoambiguityaboutwhatweareinterestedinandwhatwewantouraudiencetobeinterestedin,becausethenewinformationthatweintendtoofferispresupposedbythelinguisticcontext.However,ifthequestionisimplicit,ourjobismoredemanding:

weshowourrespectandconsiderationtoouraudiencebywayoffacilitatingthecommunicationwiththehelpofanarrayofavailablemeans.

Withallthenonlinguisticdevicessuchasfacialexpressionsandgestures,themessageistypicallychanneledfromoneendtotheotherwiththehelpoflinguisticdevicessuchaslexicalchoice,intonationpatternandgrammaticalorganization.Thoughthefirsttwoarenotourmajorconcerninthisbook,weshallbeconstantlyreferringtotheminthecourseofanalyzingtheinformationstructureofthesentence.Ourdiscussionwillfocusonthegrammaticalapproachestotheorganizationoflinguisticfragments,eachcarryingbitsofinformation,intoaunifiedsentence,whichfacilitatestheconveyanceofthemessagebyguidingthelistenerorreaderviaadesiredrouteofcommunication.Weshallexaminetheinternalstructureofthesentencebycuttingthesentenceintoinformationunitsandorderingthesentencepartssoastoachievetheintendedresult.Anunderstandingoftheinformationstructurewillpresumablydousgoodinaneffectiveconveyanceofourmessagebecausewelearntricksofplacingtheimportantinformationinthelimelight—devicesforachievingemphasis.

Wehaveseenthatthesentencehasagrammaticalstructureandwecantellwhetherornotasentenceisgrammaticallycorrectevenwhenitoccursinisolation.Butmoreoftenthannotourconcerndoesnotendhere;

infactwearemoreinterestedinwhetherornotoursentencesmakesense.Wemakeourjudgmentonthebasisofitsinternalinformationstructurewithreferencetothecontextualbackground.

Itisacommonassumptionthatmostofthesentencesweuttereverydayareloadedwithinformation;

ifnot,ourutterancewouldbelittlebetterthannoise.Thefewexceptionsincludegreetings,whicharepolitenoisesatbestbecausetheyaredevoidofsemanticvalues.Inorderforourcommunicationtobesmoothandmeaningful,itisageneralrulethatourutteranceoftenneedstocontaingiveninformation,withoutwhichtheutterancewouldprobablystrikeasirrelevantand,moreimportantly,newinformation,withoutwhichtheutterancewouldprobablybeconsideredassheernonsense.

Therefore,intheprocessofconstructingamessage,weneedtotaketwothingsintoconsideration:

toconstructaninformativemessageandtoprovideanunambiguousstartingpointofthemessageforthesakeofcourtesytothereceiverandtheconvenienceforourselves.Thefirsttaskisfulfilledbythenewinformationthatweintendtooffer;

thesecondbythegiveninformation.Thenewinformation,asitisassumedtobeunfamiliartothereceiver,isthemostimportantpartoftheinformationunitintermsof“newsvalue”andisthuscloselylinkedwiththeinformationfocus.Thegiveninformation,ontheotherhand,isassumedtobefamiliartothereceiverbecauseitwasexplicitlyprovidedintheprecedinglinguisticcontextorimplicitlyprovidedinviewofthesituationalcontextorthesharedculturalbackground.Itsfunctionisoneofprovidingalinkbetweenthesentenceinquestionanditscontextsothatthesentencesarechainedinsuchawayastoformacoherenttext.Asarule,inconnectedspeechorwriting,thesentencesweproducetendtoproceedfromwhatistakentobegiventowhatistakentobenew.Comparethefollowingtwogroupsofsentences:

（1）Adistinctandalmostoverwhelmingbeatisfoundinrockmusic.Aneasilyrecognizablerhythmexistsineachsong.Anoverpoweringemotionalmessageisexpressedbythemusic.

（2）Inrockmusicwefindadistinctandalmostoverwhelmingbeat.Eachsonghasaneasilyrecognizablerhythm.Itsmessageisanoverpoweringemotionalone.

（1）isanexampleoffragmentarypassage,wherethereisnosmoothinformationflowacrossthesentences.Eachsentencestartswithnewinformationandgivesthelistenerorreadera“surprise”.Inthefollowingrevisedversion,coherenceisachievedbecausethegiveninformationisofferedatthebeginningineachcase,initializinganutterancebyintroducingatopicfordiscussion.Forexample,inrockmusicismostprobablyrelatedtoaparticulartopiconmusicinthelinguisticorsituationalcontext;

eachsongreferstononeotherthansongsofrockmusic;

anditsmessage（apronounisusuallycharacteristicofanaphoricreference）isthemessageofrockmusic.Notably,thenewinformationisconsistentlyfoundinthepredicatewhichnormallyconstitutesthelatterhalfofasentence（seeTable1）.

GIVEN

NEW

inrockmusic,we

eachsong

itsmessage

findadistinctandalmostoverwhelmingbeat

hasaneasilyrecognizablerhythm

isanoverpoweringemotionalone

Table1:

Givenandnewinformation

Thesesentencesmayelicitthefollowingquestionswhichtheauthorisassumedtointendtoanswer:

（1）Whatdowefindinrockmusic?

（not:

Wheredowefindadistinctandalmostoverwhelmingbeat?

）

（2）Whatdoeseachsonghave?

Whathasaneasilyrecognizablerhythm?

（3）Whatisitsmessage?

Whosemessageisanoverpoweringemotionalone?

Thedichotomybetweenthegivenandthenewinformationstemsfromtheideathatwecandistinguishbetweenwhatwearetalkingabout（thetopic）andwhatwearesayingabout（thecomment）.Unfortunately,Englishdoesnothaveformalcategoriesmarkingtopicandcomment;

whatwehavetomakedowithistheorderofwords（plusprosodiccontour,ifspoken）.Inthemeantime,Englishhasanumberofdeviceswhichenableustotopicalisewhatwetakeasgiveninformationandtopostponeforfocuswhatwetakeasnewinformation.Someofthesedeviceswillbediscussedintheforthcomingsections.

InspokenEnglish,ourutteranceisphonologicallydividedupintotonegroups,eachofwhichrepresentsaparticularunitofinformation.Atonegroupconsistsofasequenceofstressedandunstressedsyllablescontaininganucleuswhichsignalsthefocusofinformation,i.e.thatpartofinformationunitwhichistakentobeparticularlyimportant.Underneutralconditions,thenucleusfallsonthelastelementofthesequenceasitiscommonthatweprocesstheinformationinamessagetoachievealinearpresentationfromlowtohighinformationvalue.Werefertothisastheprincipleofend-focus.Forexample,inthedukegavemyauntateapot,itisteapotthatismostlikelytoreceivetheacousticprominence—thephonologicalindicatorofthenucleus.Itislesscommontoplacethenucleusinotherpositionssuchastheduke,myauntandgave;

otherwise,ourpurposecouldbetocorrectamistakenidentityortohighlightacontrast,whichisusuallyassociatedwithanimplieddenial（AandnotB）.Withthehelpoftheprosodiccontourandthecontextualclues,ouraudienceusuallydonothavedifficultyingraspingourmeaningandsochancesareslimforourmiscommunication.

WrittenEnglish,however,issubjecttoanumberofdisadvantages.First,facialexpressionsandgesturesonthepartofthewriterarenotatallhelpful.Inthesecondplace,thesituationinwhichthewrittenpassageisconstructedisusuallybeyondthereach.Andthirdly,whetheritismeanttobereadsilentlyoraloud,itsintonationpattern,ifthereisone,isimplicitandimaginary.Asaresult,ourwritingislefttothetendermerciesofourreaderwhoseinterpretationcouldvaryfrompersontoperson.Tokeepthepotentialambiguitytotheminimum,weneedtomakefulluseofthevisuallinguisticdevicesandtakeextracareofsuchthingsasdiction,punctuationand,particularly,wordorder.“Writingmakethanexactman”becausewedonothavemuchleeway.LikewhatwedotospokenEnglish,themostusefulpresentationoftheinformationfocusinwrittenEnglishisorderingitemsinaccordancewiththeirdegreeofimportance,whichculminatesfromlowtohighunderneutralconditions.Sowe“savethebestfor