General Introductionto AristotleWord格式.docx

General Introductionto AristotleWord格式.docx

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UponthedeathofPhilip,Alexandersucceededtothekingshipandpreparedforhissubsequentconquests.Aristotle'

sworkbeingfinished,hereturnedtoAthens,whichhehadnotvisitedsincethedeathofPlato.HefoundthePlatonicschoolflourishingunderXenocrates,andPlatonismthedominantphilosophyofAthens.HethussetuphisownschoolataplacecalledtheLyceum.WhenteachingattheLyceum,Aristotlehadahabitofwalkingaboutashediscoursed.Itwasinconnectionwiththisthathisfollowersbecameknowninlateryearsastheperipatetics,meaning"

towalkabout."

Forthenextthirteenyearshedevotedhisenergiestohisteachingandcomposinghisphilosophicaltreatises.Heissaidtohavegiventwokindsoflectures:

themoredetaileddiscussionsinthemorningforaninnercircleofadvancedstudents,andthepopulardiscoursesintheeveningforthegeneralbodyofloversofknowledge.AtthesuddendeathofAlexanderin323BCE.,thepro-MacedoniangovernmentinAthenswasoverthrown,andageneralreactionoccurredagainstanythingMacedonian.Achargeofimpietywastrumpedupagainsthim.ToescapeprosecutionhefledtoChalcisinEuboeasothat（Aristotlesays）"

TheAtheniansmightnothaveanotheropportunityofsinningagainstphilosophyastheyhadalreadydoneinthepersonofSocrates."

InthefirstyearofhisresidenceatChalcishecomplainedofastomachillnessanddiedin322BCE.

2.Writings

ItisreportedthatAristotle'

swritingswereheldbyhisstudentTheophrastus,whohadsucceededAristotleinleadershipofthePeripateticSchool.Theophrastus'

slibrarypassedtohispupilNeleus.Toprotectthebooksfromtheft,Neleus'

sheirsconcealedtheminavault,wheretheyweredamagedsomewhatbydampness,mothsandworms.Inthishidingplacetheywerediscoveredabout100BCEbyApellicon,arichbooklover,andbroughttoAthens.TheywerelatertakentoRomeafterthecaptureofAthensbySullain86BCE.InRometheysoonattractedtheattentionofscholars,andtheneweditionofthemgavefreshimpetustothestudyofAristotleandofphilosophyingeneral.ThiscollectionisthebasisoftheworksofAristotlethatwehavetoday.Strangely,thelistofAristotle'

sworksgivenbyDiogenesLaertiusdoesnotcontainanyofthesetreatises.ItispossiblethatDiogenes'

lististhatofforgeriescompiledatatimewhentherealworkswerelosttosight.

TheworksofAristotlefallunderthreeheadings:

（1）dialoguesandotherworksofapopularcharacter;

（2）collectionsoffactsandmaterialfromscientifictreatment;

and（3）systematicworks.AmonghiswritingsofapopularnaturetheonlyonewhichwepossessofanyconsequenceistheinterestingtractOnthePolityoftheAthenians.Theworksonthesecondgroupinclude200titles,mostinfragments,collectedbyAristotle'

sschoolandusedasresearch.SomemayhavebeendoneatthetimeofAristotle'

ssuccessorTheophrastus.Includedinthisgroupareconstitutionsof158Greekstates.Thesystematictreatisesofthethirdgrouparemarkedbyaplainnessofstyle,withnoneofthegoldenflowoflanguagewhichtheancientspraisedinAristotle.Thismaybeduetothefactthattheseworkswerenot,inmostcases,publishedbyAristotlehimselforduringhislifetime,butwereeditedafterhisdeathfromunfinishedmanuscripts.UntilWernerJaeger（1912）itwasassumedthatAristotle'

swritingspresentedasystematicaccountofhisviews.Jaegerarguesforanearly,middleandlateperiod（geneticapproach）,wheretheearlyperiodfollowsPlato'

stheoryofformsandsoul,themiddlerejectsPlato,andthelaterperiod（whichincludesmostofhistreatises）ismoreempiricallyoriented.Aristotle'

ssystematictreatisesmaybegroupedinseveraldivision:

Logic

Categories（10classificationsofterms）

OnInterpretation（propositions,truth,modality）

PriorAnalytics（syllogisticlogic）

PosteriorAnalytics（scientificmethodandsyllogism）

Topics（rulesforeffectiveargumentsanddebate）

OnSophisticalRefutations（informalfallacies）

Physicalworks

Physics（explainschange,motion,void,time）

OntheHeavens（structureofheaven,earth,elements）

OnGeneration（throughcombiningmaterialconstituents）

Meteorologics（originofcomets,weather,disasters）

Psychologicalworks

OntheSoul（explainsfaculties,senses,mind,imagination）

OnMemory,Reminiscence,Dreams,andProphesying

Worksonnaturalhistory

HistoryofAnimals（physical/mentalqualities,habits）

OnthepartsofAnimals

OntheMovementofAnimals

OntheProgressionofAnimals

OntheGenerationofAnimals

Minortreatises

Problems

Philosophicalworks

Metaphysics（substance,cause,form,potentiality）

NicomacheanEthics（soul,happiness,virtue,friendship）

EudemainEthics

MagnaMoralia

Politics（beststates,utopias,constitutions,revolutions）

Rhetoric（elementsofforensicandpoliticaldebate）

Poetics（tragedy,epicpoetry）

3.Logic

Aristotle'

swritingsonthegeneralsubjectoflogicweregroupedbythelaterPeripateticsunderthenameOrganon,orinstrument.Fromtheirperspective,logicandreasoningwasthechiefpreparatoryinstrumentofscientificinvestigation.Aristotlehimself,however,usestheterm"

logic"

asequivalenttoverbalreasoning.TheCategoriesofAristotleareclassificationsofindividualwords（asopposedtopropositions）,andincludethefollowingten:

substance,quantity,quality,relation,place,time,situation,condition,action,passion.Theyseemtobearrangedaccordingtotheorderofthequestionswewouldaskingainingknowledgeofanobject.Forexample,weask,first,whatathingis,thenhowgreatitis,nextofwhatkinditis.Substanceisalwaysregardedasthemostimportantofthese.Substancesarefurtherdividedintofirstandsecond:

firstsubstancesareindividualobjects;

secondsubstancesarethespeciesinwhichfirstsubstancesorindividualsinhere.

Notionswhenisolateddonotinthemselvesexpresseithertruthorfalsehood:

itisonlywiththecombinationofideasinapropositionthattruthandfalsityarepossible.Theelementsofsuchapropositionarethenounsubstantiveandtheverb.Thecombinationofwordsgivesrisetorationalspeechandthought,conveysameaningbothinitspartsandasawhole.Suchthoughtmaytakemanyforms,butlogicconsidersonlydemonstrativeformswhichexpresstruthandfalsehood.Thetruthorfalsityofpropositionsisdeterminedbytheiragreementordisagreementwiththefactstheyrepresent.Thuspropositionsareeitheraffirmativeornegative,eachofwhichagainmaybeeitheruniversalorparticularorundesignated.Adefinition,forAristotleisastatementoftheessentialcharacterofasubject,andinvolvesboththegenusandthedifference.Togetatatruedefinitionwemustfindoutthosequalitieswithinthegenuswhichtakenseparatelyarewiderthanthesubjecttobedefined,buttakentogetherarepreciselyequaltoit.Forexample,"

prime"

"

odd"

and"

number"

areeachwiderthan"

triplet"

（i.e.,acollectionofanythreeitems,suchasthreerocks）;

buttakentogethertheyarejustequaltoit.Thegenusdefinitionmustbeformedsothatnospeciesisleftout.Havingdeterminedthegenusandspecies,wemustnextfindthepointsofsimilarityinthespeciesseparatelyandthenconsiderthecommoncharacteristicsofdifferentspecies.Definitionsmaybeimperfectby

（1）beingobscure,

（2）bybeingtoowide,or（3）bynotstatingtheessentialandfundamentalattributes.Obscuritymayarisefromtheuseofequivocalexpressions,ofmetaphoricalphrases,orofeccentricwords.TheheartofAristotle'

slogicisthesyllogism,theclassicexampleofwhichisasfollows:

Allmenaremortal;

Socratesisaman;

therefore,Socratesismortal.Thesyllogisticformoflogicalargumentationdominatedlogicfor2,000years.

4.Metaphysics

seditorsgavethename"

Metaphysics"

tohiswo