英文翻译格式范本Word文件下载.docx

英文翻译格式范本Word文件下载.docx

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英文翻译格式范本英文翻译格式范本RiggingthePriceforHigherEducationJohnS.BarryThereisnoquestionthatthecostofacollegedegreeisincreasingrapidly.Anoft-cited1996studybytheGeneralAccountingOfficefoundthattuitionandfeesatpublicinstitutionshaveincreasedsome234percentsince1980whilefamilyincomeandthegeneralinflationratehaveincreasedonlyabout80percentoverthesameperiod.Costsatprivatecollegeanduniversitieshavefaredlittlebetter,increasingmorethan220percent.Manyreasonshavebeengivenfortheincreasingcostsofhigheredition.Someofthemostpersuasiveincludetheincreaseddemandforcollegesdegrees,higheroverheadcostsassociatedwithincreasedfacultyresearch,rcentreductionsinstatesupportofpublicinstitutions,andfederalstudentaidprogramsthatindirectlysubsidizeschools.Theseallareimportantfactorsthatincreasecosts;@#@however,thereisanotherreasonnot.oftenmentioned.Collegesanduniversities,particularlyeliteprivateuniversitiesexerciseacertaindegreeofmonopolypowerthatallowsthemtochargeeachindividualstudentahigherpricethanwouldbethecaseotherwise.Thisarticleaddresseseachofthereasonsforincreasedcosts.However,theemphasisisplacedonthelastone,themonopolisticpowerofschools.TheReasonsforIncreasingCostsIncreasedvalueofacollegedegree.Themostimportantreasoncollegecostshaveescalatedisthatthevalueofacollegeeducationhasincreased.Infact,accordingtotheGeneralAccountingOfficetheaveragecollegegraduateearnedabout43percentmorethantheaveragehighschoolgraduatedidin1980.Today,thedifferenceinearningsbetweenthesesametwogroupsismorethan70percent.Therefore,moreandmorefamiliesarefindingitnecessarytosucceedinthe,jobmarket.Atthesametime，thecollegeagepopulationingeneralhasincreased.Thisincreaseddemandforhighereducationhasdrivenupthepriceofcollegejustasincreaseddemandforanycommoditydrivesupthepriceifthatdemandisnotmetwithasufficientlyincreasedsupply.Increasedresearchatuniversities.Anotherfactoraffectingtuitioncostsatmanycollegesanduniversitiesisanincreasedemphasisonresearch.Theprestigeofacollegeoruniversitytodayislargelyafunctionofthepublishingprowessoftheinstitutionsprofessors.Publishingrequiresresearch,whichrequirestime.Thismeansthatprofessorsaredoinglessteachingandmoreresearch.Fewerhoursatthelecternforeachprofessormeanseitherthatcourseandclassselectionarereduced,whichforcesstudentstotakelongertofinishadegree,orthatmoreprofessorsarerequiredonstaff,whichforcestheinstitutiontospendmoreforsalaries.CharlesSykesmadethispointinhisexcellent1988book,Pro/scam.Eitherway,theresultishigherfixedoroverheadcosts,whichtypicallyarepassedontostudentsandparentsthroughhighertuitionandfees.Reducedstatefundingforpublicinstitutions.Inaddition,thecurrenteraoffiscalausterityingovernmenthasmeantslowergrowthinstatebudgets,whichoftenhasmeantslowergrowthinfinancialsupportofpublicuniversities.AccordingtoDpartmentofEducationstatistics,stategovernmentfundsaccountedfor46.3percentofpublicinstitutionrevenuesin1980.By1993thatfigurehaddroppedto36.8percent.Increasedtuitionhasbeentheonlyrecourseforpublicinstitutionssimultaneouslyfacedwithincreaseddemandandshrinkingstatesupport.Federalprogramsthatfacilitatefamilydebt.Federalprogramsmeanttoassiststudentsfacingsteepcollegecostshavethemselvesaddedtotheriseintuition.StartingwithpassageoftheHigherEducationActof1965,thefederalgovernmenthasguaranteedstudentloansextendedbyprivatebanks.TheStudentLoanMarketingAssociation（SallieMae）wasestablishedin1972asagovernment-sponsoredenterprisetoestablishasecondarymarketinstudentloans.Inaddition,alimiteddirectgovernmentloanprogramwasestablishedin1993.Theseloanprogramsnotonlyfacilitateindebtedness,butalsoboostthescaleofthatindebtednessbyencouragingsteepertuitionincreases.AsThomasDonlanrecentlywroteinBarronsmagazine,Thefacultyandstaffcanvotethemselveshighersalariesandmoreresourcesiftheonlyconsequenceisthatstudentsandparentsjusthavetosignonthedottedlinetoborrowsomemoremoney.Withfederaldebtassistancesoreadilyavailable,schoolshavenoincentivetocontrolthecostsofeducation.Schoolsasmonopolists.Increaseddemand,increasedresearch,andreducedstatefundingallaffectthestickerpriceofacollegedegree-theadvertisedtuitionthataschoolcharges.However,federalprograms（andtoalesserextentprivatescholarshipsandinstitutionalaid）thatsubsidizestudentsdirectlyaffectnotonlythestickerpriceofcollegebutalsotheactualpricepaidbyastudentandhisfamily.Moststudentsandtheirfamiliesdonotpaythefullstickerpricejustasfewpeoplepaythefullstickerpriceforanewautomobile.Infact,thankstosubsidizedloans,institutionalscholarships,statesubsidies,andfederalgrants,schoolscanusuallygetawaywithchargingeachstudentadifferentprice.Thus,thesameeducationtypicallycostseverystudentadifferentamount.Theabilitytochargedifferentstudentsdifferentpricesisknownineconomictermsaspricediscrimination.Onlyfirmswithmonopolisticpowerareabletoengageinpricediscrimination.Theresultofpricediscriminationisthatcollegesareabletochargeeachstudentexactlyasmuchasheorsheiswillingtopay.Whilethismayseemfairandfinancialaidisoftentoutedaslevelingtheplayingfield,thefactisthatpricediscriminationrarelybenefitsanyconsumers,eventhosewithlowincomes.Tounderstandthisimportantfirsttounderstandthebasisofeveryeconomictransactiontakesplaceinthemarketplace.Everyonewhotakespartinanyeconomictransactiondoessobecausehebelieveshewillbebetteroffafterthedealthanhebefore.Whyotherwiseshouldengageinthetrade?

@#@Forexample,ifyou,thestudent,decideasemesterofclassesataparticularschoolfor$10,000thendecisionthatatpresentthatsemesterofclassesisworthmoretoyouthanholdingontothe$10,000.Ifthiswerenotthecasethenyouwouldbebetteroffholdingontothecashormakinganotherpurchase.Theextravalueyoureceivefromthattransaction-aboveandbeyondthe$10,000paid-isknownasyourconsumersurplus.Theuniversityismakingexactlythesamecalculationontheothersideofthedeal.Ifthetransactiontranspiresthentheschoolhasobviouslydecidedthatthe$10,000incashismorevaluablethannotspendingthetimeandresourcestooffertheclasses.Theexcessvalueonthissideoftheledgerisknownineconomictermsasproducersurplus.Thisexamplehelpsillustratethatatransactionwilltranspireonlywhenboththepurchaserandthesellerreceivesomesurplusvaluefromthedealandconversely,aneconomictransactionwillalwaysoccurifthereisasurplustobegainedbyboththeconsumerandtheproducer.Ofcourse,theactualamountofsurplusenjoyedbytheconsumerorproducerisdifficultifnotimpossibletomeasureinmostindividualmarkettransactions.However,itgenerallyistruethataconsumerwillreceiveagreatersurplusinacompetitivemarket（oneservedbymanyproducers）,thaninamonopolisticmarket（oneserverdbyasmallnumberofproducers）andaprducerwillenjoyalargersurplusinamonopolisticmarket.Thisisbecauseinacompetitivemarkettheconsumercanswitchfromoneproducertoanotherifheisunhappywiththelevelofsurplusheisreceiving.Competitionamongproducerslowerspricesandthusincreasesconsumersurplusattheexpenseofproducersurplus.Firmsthathavemonopolisticpower,however,neednotcompetewithotherproducersasmuchandareabletoretainalargersurplusforthemselves.Inshort,monopolisticproducershavetheluxuryofdeterminingexactlyhowmuchanindividualwillpayfortheirservicesandchargingpreciselythatamount.Consumershavelittlechoicebuttopaythemonopolistsprice.What,then,isthelessonforhighereducation?

@#@Collegesanduniversitieshavegreatermonopolisticpowertodaythaneverbefore.Thisfactcametotheforefrontin1991whenagroupofIvyLeagueschoolswereinvestigatedbytheDepartmentofjusticeforcollusioninsettingtheirtuitionprices.Inshort,theseschoolsagreedthattheywouldnolongeroffermerit-basedscholarshipsandwouldofferfinancialaidonthebasisofneedonly.Thus,theschoolsinvolvedagreedtoendeconomiccompetitionfortalentedstudents.TheDepartmentofjusticebrokeuptheIvyLeaguecartel.However,thishasnotputanendtotheexerciseofmonopolisticpowerbyschoolsofhigherlearning.Infact,thepowerofthemonopolyhasspreadbeyondasmallnumberofeliteinstitutionsandhasbeenwidelyadoptedbymoreordinarycollegesanduniversities.Inpart,thisexpansionisattributabletoafailuretomeettheincreaseddemandforhighereducationwithacommensurateincreaseinsupply.Itisdifficulttobuildanewcollegeoruniversity.Andsothesamenumberofschoolsisservinganincreasingnumberofstudents.Thiswilleventuallyevenoutasnewcollegesarecreatedandgainareputationinthemarketplace,butthatwilltaketime.Moredirectlyandconcernisthatfederalstudentaidhasenabledmonopolisticbyschools.Collegesanduniversitiesareabletoincreasethestickerpricebeyondthereachofmoststudentsandthenreducetheactualpricechargedindividualstudentsbyofferingthemvariousbundlesoffinancialaid.Thus,eachstudentisofferedadifferentpricethatmatchesalmostexactlywhatheorsheiswillingtopay.Theresultisthatthestudents（consumer）surplusisdecreasedandtheschools（producer）surplusisincreased.Intheend,studentswillbenefitlessfrom