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学号070808206

院（系）经济与管理学院

专业市场营销

指导老师

二〇一〇年十二月九日

MarketingChannelsandValueNetworks

Mostproducersdonotselltheirgoodsdirectlytothefinalusers;

betweenthemstandsasetofintermediariesperformingavarietyoffunctions.Theseintermediariesconstituteamarketingchannel（alsocalledatradechannelordistributionchannel）.Formally,marketingchannelsaresetsofinterdependentorganizationsinvolvedintheprocessofmakingaproductorserviceavailableforuseorconsumption.Theyarethesetofpathwaysaproductorservicefollowsafterproduction,culminatinginpurchaseandusebythefinalenduser.

Someintermediaries-suchaswholesalersandretailers-buy,taketitleto,andresellthemerchandise;

theyarecalledmerchants.Others-brokers,manufacturers'

representatives,salesagents-searchforcustomersandmaynegotiateontheproducer'

sbehalfbutdonottaketitletothegoods;

theyarecalledagents.Stillothers-transportationcompanies,independentwarehouses,banks,advertisingagencies-assistinthedistributionprocessbutneithertaketitletogoodsnornegotiatepurchasesorsales;

theyarecalledfacilitators.

TheImportanceofChannels

Amarketingchannelsystemistheparticularsetofmarketingchannelsafirmemploys,anddecisionsaboutitareamongthemostcriticalonesmanagementfaces.IntheUnitedStates,channelmemberscollectivelyhaveearnedmarginsthataccountfor30%to50%oftheultimatesellingprice.Incontrast,advertisingtypicallyhasaccountedforlessthan5%to7%ofthefinalprice.Marketingchannelsalsorepresentasubstantialopportunitycost.Oneofthechiefroles

ofmarketingchannelsistoconvertpotentialbuyersintoprofitablecustomers.Marketingchannelsmustnotjustservemarkets,theymustalsomakemarkets.

Thechannelschosenaffectallothermarketingdecisions.Thecompany'

spricingdependsonwhetheritusesmassmerchandisersorhigh-qualityboutiques.Thefirm'

ssaleforceandadvertisingdecisionsdependonhowmuchtrainingandmotivationdealersneed.Inaddition,channeldecisionsincluderelativelylong-termcommitmentswithotherfinnsaswellasasetofpoliciesandprocedures.Whenanautomakersignsupindependentdeal·

erstosellitsautomobiles,theautomakercannotbuythemoutthenextdayandreplacethemwithcompany-ownedoutlets.Butatthesametime,channelchoicesthemselvesdependonthecompany'

smarketingstrategywithrespecttosegmentation,targeting,andpositioning.Holisticmarketersensurethatmarketingdecisionsinallthesedifferentareasaremadetocollectivelymaximizevalue.

Inmanagingitsintermediaries,thefirmmustdecidehowmuchefforttodevotetopushversuspullmarketing.Apushstrategyusesthemanufacturer'

ssalesforce,tradepromotionmoney,orothermeanstoinduceintermediariestocarry,promote,andselltheproducttoendusers.Pushstrategyisappropriatewherethereislowbrandloyaltyinacategory,brandchoiceismadeinthestore,theproductisanimpulseitem,andproductbenefitsarewellunderstood.Inapullstrategythemanufacturerusesadvertising,promotion,andotherformsofcommunicationtopersuadeconsumerstodemandtheproductfromintermediaries,thusinducingtheintermediariestoorderit.Pullstrategyisappropriatewhenthereishighbrandloyaltyandhighinvolvementinthecategory,whenconsumersareabletoper·

ceivedifferencesbetweenbrands,andwhentheychoosethebrandbeforetheygotothestore.Foryears,drugcompaniesaimedadssolelyatdoctorsandhospitals,butin1997theFDAissuedguidelinesforTVadsthatopenedthewayforpharmaceuticalstoreachconsumers

directly.Thisisparticularlyevidentintheburgeoningbusinessofprescriptionsleepaids.

SEPRACORINC.

Theincreaseduseofprescriptionsleepaidsisduenotsomuchtoanincreaseinthenumberofinsomniacs,astothebillionsofdollarsthedrugcompaniesrespendingonprintandTVadvertising.ConsiderSepracor'

sadsforLunesta,featuringapalegreenLunamothflittingaroundtheheadofapeacefulsleeper.Sepracorspent$2.98millioninconsumeradvertisingin2006,anditsstockandsaleshavejumpedduetoitssuccessfulcampaign.Thedrugindustryasawholespentmorethan$4billiononconsumeradsin2005,morethanafivefoldincreasein10years.ItsaggressivepUllmarketingstrategyhas,however,promptedintensedebateandscrutinyfromCongress.Afterall,whileaggressiveadvertisingofMerck'

sVioxxgeneratedhugeprofits,itexposedhousandsofU.S.adultstoheartattackrisks.Criticsofthenewdrugadssaythedrugstheytouttreatsymptomsratherthanspurringconsumerstodiscover

thereasontheycan'

tsleep（whichcanrangefromsimplestresstoseriousillness）.Proponentsofsuchadssaythatinaneraofmanagedcareandshorteneddoctorvisits,adseducatepatientsandsparkimportantconversationswithdoctors.AlthoughthepharmaceuticalindustryisunlikelytopUllback,Bristol-MyersSquibbCo.haswonsomekudosforvoluntarilybanningadsduringthefirstyearnewdrugsareonthemarkets.

TopmarketingcompaniessuchasCoca-Cola,Intel,andNikeskillfullyemploybothpushandpullstrategies.Marketingactivitiesdirectedtowardsthechannelaspartofapushstrategyaremoreeffectivewhenaccompaniedbyawell-designedandwell-executedpullstrategythatactivatesconsumerdemand.Ontheotherhand,withoutatleastsomeconsumerinterest,itcanbeverydifficulttogainmuchchannelacceptanceandsupport.

ChannelDevelopment

AnewfirmtypicallystartsasalocaloperationseIlinginafairlycircumscribedmarket,usingıexistingintermediaries.Thenumberofsuchintermediariesisapttobelimited:

afewmanıufacturers'

salesagents,afewwholesalers,severalestablishedretailers,afewtruckingcomıpanies,andafewwarehouses.Decidingonthebestchannelsmightnotbeaproblem;

theıproblemisoftentoconvincetheavailableinterımediariestohandlethefirm'

sline.

Ifthefirmissuccessful,itmightbranchintonewmarketsandusedifferentchannelsindifferentmarkets.Insmallermarkets,thefirmmightselldirectlytoretailers;

inlargermarkets,itmightsellthroughdistributors.Inruralareas,itmightworkwithgeneral-goodsmerchants;

inurbanareas,withlimited-linemerchants.Inonepartofthecountry,itmightgrantexclusivefranchises;

inanother,itmightseJJthroughaJJoutletswitIingtohandlethemerchandise.Inonecountry,itmightuseinternationalsalesagents;

inanother,itmightpartnerwithalocalfirm.

Internationalmarketsposedistinctchallenges.Customers'

shoppinghabitscanvarybycountries,andmanyretailerssuchasGermany'

sAldi,theUnitedKingdom'

sTesco,andSpain'

sZarahaveredefinedthemselvestoacertaindegreewhenenteringanewmarkettobettertailortheirimagetolocalneedsandwants.Retailersthathavelargelystucktothesamesellingformularegardlessofgeography,suchasEddieBauer,Marks&

Spencer,andWal-Mart,marketingstrategyforItsentranceinto1MUS.markettoslockdifferentnationalmanufacturerhavesometimesencounteredtroubleinenteringnewmarkets.

Inshort,thechannelsystemevolvesasafunctionoflocalopportunitiesandconditions,emergingthreatsandopportunities,companyresourcesandcapabilities,andotherfactors.ConsidersomeofthechallengesDellhasencounteredinrecentyears.

DELL

DellrevolutionizedthepersonalcomputercategorybysellingproductsdirectlytocustomersviathetelephoneandlatertheInternet,ratherthanthroughretailersorresellers.CustomerscouldcustomdesigntheexactPCtheywanted,andrigorouscostcuttingallowedforloweverydayprices.Soundlikeawinningformula?

Itwasforalmosttwodecades.But2006sawthecompanyencounteranumberofproblemsthatledtoasteepstockpricedecline.First,reinvigoratedcompetitorssuchasHPnarrowedthegapinproductivityandprice.Alwaysfocusedmoreonthebusinessmarket,Dellstruggledtoselleffectivelytotheconsumermarket.AshiftinconsumerpreferencestobUyinretailstoresasopposedtobuyingdirectdidn'

thelp,butself-inflicteddamagefromanultraefficientsupplychainmodelthatsqueezedcosts-andquality-outofcustomerservicewasperhapsthemostpainfuLManagersevaluatedcalfcenteremployeesprimarilyonhowfongtheystayedoneachcalf-arecipefordisasterasscoresofcustomersfelttheirproblemswereignoredornotproperlyhandled.AlackofR&

Dspendingthathinderednew-productdevelopmentandledtoalackofdifferentiationdidn'

thelpeither.Clearly,Dellwasenteringanewchapterinitshistorythatwouldrequireafundamentalrethinkingofitschannelstrategyanditsmarketingapproachasawhole.

HybridChannels

Today'

ssuccessfulcompaniesarealsomultiplyingthenumberof"

go-to-market"

orhybridchannelsinanyonemarketarea.IncontrasttoDell,HPhasuseditssalesforcetoselltolargeaccounts,outboundtelemarketingtoselltomedium-sizedaccounts,directmailwithaninboundnumbertoselltosmallaccounts,retailerstoselltostillsmalleraccounts,andtheInternettosellspecialtyitems.Staplesmarketsthroughitstraditionalretailchannel,adirect-responseInternetsite,virtualmalls,andthousandsoflinksonaffiliatedsites.

Companiesthatmanagehybridchannelsmustmakesurethesechannelsworkwelltogetherandmatcheachtargetcustomer'

spreferredwaysofdoingbusiness.Customersexpectchannelintegration,characterizedbyfeaturessuchas:

theabilitytoorderaproductonlineandpickitupataconvenientretaillocation；

theabilitytoreturnanonline-orderedproducttoanearby