现代语言学自考大纲.docx

现代语言学自考大纲.docx

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现代语言学自考大纲

第一章  绪论

1/Whatislinguistics?

¢什么是语言学？

¢Linguistics isgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics

¢语言学的研究范畴

¢Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalled generallinguistics.（普通语言学）

¢Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalled phonetics.（语音学）

¢ Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalled phonology.（音系学）

¢ Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalled morphology.（形态学）

¢ Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalled syntax.（句法学）

¢ Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalled semantics.（语义学）

¢ Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalled pragmatics.（语用学）

¢ Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalled socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）

¢ Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）

¢Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownas appliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）

¢Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.

¢Otherrelatedbranchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学） neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）and computationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

¢语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive

¢描写与规定

¢Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe descriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobe prescriptive.

¢Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.

¢Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.

¢Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic

¢共时和历时

¢Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisa synchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisa diachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.

Speechandwriting

¢口头语与书面语

¢Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication. 

¢Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform. 

¢Reasons:

●1.Speechprecedeswriting;

●2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;

●3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole[pə'rəul]

¢语言和言语

¢TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20th century.

¢Langue referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,and parole referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.

¢Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

语言能力和语言运用

¢Competenceandperformance

¢ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.

¢Hedefines competence astheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and performance theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules. 

4/Whatislanguage?

¢语言的定义

¢Language isasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

¢Sapir,Edwarduses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.

¢Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.

¢Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.

5/Designfeatures

¢语言的甄别性特征

¢Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.

¢AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.

1）Arbitrariness

¢任意性（和约定俗成性）

¢ Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

¢Forinstance,thereisnonecessaryrelationshipbetweentheworddogandtheanimalitrefersto.Thefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguagesandthatthesamesoundmaybeusedtorefertodifferentobjectsisanothergoodexample.

¢Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Somewords,suchasthewordscreatedintheimitationofsoundsbysoundsaremotivatedinacertaindegree.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions. 

2）Productivity

¢能产性

¢Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingthosethattheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore. 

3）Duality

¢结构二重性

¢Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge. 

4）Displacement

¢语言的移位性（突破时空性）

¢Itmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutwhathappenedinthepast,whatishappeningnow,orwhatwillhappeninthefuture.Languagecanalsobeusedtotalkaboutourrealwordexperiencesortheexperiencesinourimaginaryworld.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker. 

5）Culturaltransmission

¢文化传播性

¢Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew. 

Chapter2Phonology 音系学

1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage

¢语言的声音媒介

¢Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.

¢Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.

¢Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.

¢Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage（语言的声音媒介）.

¢Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.

2．Whatisphonetics?

¢什么是语音学？

¢Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.

¢语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

threebranchesofphonetics

¢Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.

¢ 

¢Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.

¢ 

¢Acousticphonetics（声学语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.

a

i

o

3.     Organsofspeech

¢发音器官

¢Thepharyngealcavity咽腔 thethroat

¢Theoralcavity口腔       themouth

¢Thenasalcavity鼻腔      thenose

语音解剖图

发音器官图

¢4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions

¢语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标

IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet

¢国际音标

¢Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols（字母符号）only,calledbroadtranscription（宽式音标）.Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics（变音符号）,callednarrowtranscription（窄式音标）.

p音的比较

¢对pit/spit中p音的比较：

¢pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：

[phit]

¢spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：

[spit]

l音的比较

¢对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：

¢Leaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：

[li:

f]

¢Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]

¢Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]

¢Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]

5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

¢英语语音的分类

¢Consonants

¢Vowels

a）ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

¢按发音方式分

¢Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:

[p][b][t][d][k][g]

¢Fricative擦音：

[f][v][s][z][W][T][s][V][h]

¢Affricate塞擦音：

[tF][dV]

¢Liquid流音：

[l][r]

¢Nasal鼻音：

[m][n][N]

¢Glide滑音：

[w][j]

¢ 

a）ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

¢按发音部位分

¢Bilabial双唇音：

[p][b][m][w]

¢Labiodental唇齿音：

[f][v]

¢Dental齿音：

[W][T]

¢Alveolar齿龈音：

[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]

¢Palatal硬腭音：

[V][tF][dV][i]

¢Velar软腭音：

[k][g][N]

¢Glottal声门音：

[h]

B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels

¢按舌头在口中的位置分：

¢Frontvowel前元音：

[i:

][i][e][A][a]

¢Centralvowel中元音：

[[:

][[][Q]

¢Backvowel后元音：

[u:

][u][R:

][R][a:

]

B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels

¢按口形的大小分：

¢Closevowel闭元音：

[i:

][i][u:

][u]

¢Semi-closevowel半闭元音：

[e][[:

]

¢Openvowel开元音：

[A][a]

¢Semi-openvowel半开元音：

[[][R:

][Q][R][a:

]

B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels

¢按唇形是否为圆分

¢Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音：

[i:

][i][e][A][a][[:

][[][Q][a:

]

¢roundedvowel圆唇元音：

[u:

][u][R:

][R]

B）Classifi