英语讲义Word文档格式.docx

英语讲义Word文档格式.docx

《英语讲义Word文档格式.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《英语讲义Word文档格式.docx（52页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

●Exposition

Chapter1Elementsofwriting

I.Paragraphstructureidentification

Gold

Gold,apreciousmetal,isprizedfortwoimportantcharacteristics.Firstofall,goldhasalustrousbeautythatisresistanttocorrosion.Therefore,itissuitableforjewelry,coins,andornamentalpurposes.Goldneverneedstobepolishedandwillremainbeautifulforever.Forexample,aMacedoniancoinremainsasuntarnishedtodayasthedayitwasmintedtwenty-threecenturiesago.Anotherimportantcharacteristicofgoldisitsusefulnesstoindustryandscience.Formanyyears,ithasbeenusedinhundredsofindustrialapplications.Themostrecentuseofgoldisinastronauts’suits.Astronautsweargold-platedheatshieldsforprotectionoutsidethespaceship.Inconclusion,goldistreasurednotonlyforitsbeauty,butalsoforitsuse.

Hurricanes

Hurricanes,whicharealsocalledcyclones,exerttremendouspower.Theseviolentstormsareoftenahundredmilesindiameter,andtheirwindscanreachvelocitiesofseventy-fivemilesperhourormore.Furthermore,thestrongwindsandheavyrainfallthataccompanythemcancompletelydestroyasmalltowninacoupleofhours.Theenergythatisreleasedbyahurricaneinonedayexceedsthetotalenergyconsumedbymankindthroughouttheworldinoneyear.

FamousSchool“Failures”

AlbertEinstein,oneoftheworld’sgeniuses,failedhisuniversityentranceexaminationsonhisfirstattempt.WilliamFaulkner,oneofAmerica’snotedwriters,neverfinishedcollegebecausehecouldnotpasshisEnglishcourses.SirWinstonChurchill,whoisconsideredoneofthemastersoftheEnglishlanguage,hadtohavespecialtutoringinEnglishduringelementaryschool.Thesefewexamplesshowthatfailureinschooldoesnotalwayspredictfailureinlife.

Synonyms

Synonyms,wordsthathavethesamebasicmeaning,donotalwayshavethesameemotionalmeaning.Forexample,thewords“stingy”and“frugal”bothmean“carefulwithmoney”.However,tocallapersonstingyisaninsult,whilethewordfrugalhasamuchmorepositiveconnotation.Similarly,apersonwantstobeslenderbutnotskinny,andaggressive,butnotpushy.Therefore,youshouldbecarefulinchoosingwordsbecausemanyso-calledsynonymsarenotreallysynonymsatall.

LearningtoOutline

Learningtooutlinewillimproveyourwritingforthreereasons.Firstofall,itwillhelpyouorganizeyourideas.Specifically,anoutlinewillensurethatyouwon’tincludeanyirrelevantideas,thatyouwon’tleaveoutanyimportantpoints,andthatyoursupportingsentenceswillbeinlogicalorder.Second,learningtowriteanoutlinewillhelpyouwritemorequickly.Itmaytakesomepracticeatfirst,butonceyoubecomeusedtooutliningyourideasbeforeyoustarttowrite.Preparinganoutlineis75%ofthework.Theactualwritingbecomeseasierbecauseyoudon’thavetoworryaboutwhatyouaregoingtosay;

youalreadyhaveawell-organizedplantofollow.Finally,yourgrammarwillimprovebecauseyouwillbeabletoconcentrateonit,notonyourthoughtsororganization.Improvedorganization,speed,andgrammarmakelearningtooutlinewellworththeeffort.

Forthesethreereasons—improvedorganization,speed,andgrammar—learningtooutlineiswellworththeeffort.

Theaboveparagraphsshowalineardevelopmentofideas,thatis,fromtopicsentencetodevelopmentsentencesandfinallytotheconcludingsentence,orthereversedorder,thatis,fromconcludingsentencestodevelopmentones,whicharetypicalofEnglishwriting,althoughtherearealwaysvariations.

Nowreadthefollowingparagraphcriticallyandprepareadiscussiononit.

Culture,LogicandRhetoric

Logic,whichisthebasisofrhetoric,comesfromculture;

itisnotuniversal.Rhetoric,therefore,isnotuniversaleither,butvariesfromculturetoculture.Therhetoricalsystemofonelanguageisneitherbetternorworsethantherhetoricalsystemofanotherlanguage,butisdifferent.

EnglishlogicandEnglishrhetoric,whicharebasedonAnglo-Europeanculturalpatterns,arelinear—thatis,agoodEnglishparagraphbeginswithageneralstatementofitscontentandthencarefullydevelopsthatstatementwithaseriesofspecificillustrations.AgoodEnglishparagraphmayalsousejustthereversesequence;

itmaystateawholeseriesofexamplesandthensummarizesthoseexamplesinasinglestatementattheendoftheparagraph.Ineithercase,however,theflowofideasoccurinastraightlinefromtheopeningsentencetothelastsentence.Furthermore,awell-structuredEnglishparagraphisneverdigressive.Thereisnothingthatdoesnotbelongtotheparagraph,andnothingthatdoesnotsupportthetopicsentence.

AtypeofconstructionfoundinArabicandPersianwritingisverydifferent.WhereasEnglishwritersusealinearsequence,ArabicandPersianwriterstendtoconstructaparagraphinaparallelsequenceusingmanycoordinators,suchasandbut.InEnglish,maturityofstyleisoftenjudgedbythedegreeofsubordinationratherthanbythedegreeofcoordination.Therefore,theArabicandPersianstylesofwriting,withtheiremphasisoncoordination,seemawkwardandimmaturetoanEnglishreader.

SomeAsianwriters,ontheotherhand,useanindirectapproach.Inthiskindofwriting,thetopicisviewedfromavarietyofangles.Thetopicisneveranalyzeddirectly;

itisreferredtoonlyindirectly.Again,suchadevelopmentinanEnglishparagraphisawkwardandunnecessarilyvaguetoanEnglishreader.

SpanishrhetoricdiffersfromEnglishrhetoricinstillanotherway.WhiletherulesofEnglishrhetoricrequirethateverysentenceinaparagraphrelatesdirectlytothecentralidea,aSpanish-speakingwriterlovestofillaparagraphwithinterestingdigressions.AlthoughaSpanishparagraphmaybeginandendonthesametopic,thewriteroftendigressesintoareasthatarenotdirectlyrelatedtothetopic.Spanishrhetoric,therefore,doesnotfollowtheEnglishrulesofparagraphunity.

Insummary,astudentwhohasmasteredthegrammarofEnglishmaystillwritepoorpapersunlesstherhetoricofEnglishisalsomastered.Also,thestudentmayhavedifficultyreadinganessaywrittenbytherulesofEnglishrhetoricunless（s）heunderstandsthe“logical”differencesfromthoseofhis/herownnativetongue.

II.Transitionalsignals

Readandcomparethefollowingtwoparagraphs

Paragraph1:

Adifferenceamongtheworld’sseasandoceansisthatthesalinityvariesindifferentclimatezones.TheBalticSeainNorthernEuropeisonlyone-fourthassalineastheRedSeaintheMiddleeast.Therearereasonsforthis.Inwarmclimates,waterevaporatesrapidly.Theconcentrationofsaltisgreater.Thesurroundinglandisdryanddoesnotcontributemuchfreshwatertodilutethesaltyseawater.Incoldclimatezones,waterevaporatesslowly.Therunoffcreatedbymeltingsnowaddsaconsiderableamountoffreshwatertodilutethesalineseawater.

Paragraph2:

Anotherdifferenceamongtheworld’sseasandoceansisthatthesalinityvariesindifferentclimatezones.Forexample,theBalticSeainNorthernEuropeisonlyonefourthassalineastheRedSeaintheMiddleEast.Therearetworeasonsforthis.Firstofall,inwarmclimatezones,waterevaporatesrapidly;

therefore,theconcentrationofsaltisgreater.Second,thesurroundinglandisdryand,consequently,doesnotcontributemuchfreshwatertodilutethesaltyseawater.Incoldclimatezones,ontheotherhand,waterevaporatesslowly.Furthermore,therunoffcreatedbymeltingsnowaddsaconsiderableamountoffreshwatertodilutethesalineseawater.

Frequently-usedtransitionalsignals

表关系连接词并列连词从句连词其他关联词

表递进furthermoreandanother（＋名词）

moreoveranadditional（＋名词）

inaddition

表转折ontheotherhandbutalthoughinspiteof（＋名词）

howeveryetthoughdespite（＋名词）

incontrasteventhough

whereas

while

表选择otherwiseorif

unless

引出事例forexampleanexampleof（＋名词）

forinstancesuchas（＋名词）

e.g.

重述i.e.

表结尾inconclusion

insummary

toconclude

tosummarize

Ex.RecognizingTransitionSignals

Step1Circleallofthetransitionsignalsinthefollowingparagraphs.Thereareat

leasttenineach.

Step2Punctuatethetransitionsignalsifnecessary

Paragraph1

Geneticresearchhasproducedbothexcitingandfrighteningpossibilities.Scientistsarenowabletocreatenewformsoflifeinthelaboratoryduetothedevelopmentofgenesplicing.Ononehandtheabilitytocreatelifeinthelaboratorycouldgreatlybenefitmankind.Forexamplebecauseinsulinisveryexpensivetoobtainfromnaturalsourcesscientistshavedevelopedamethodtomanufactureitinexpensivelyinthelaboratory.Anotherbeneficialapplicationofgenesplicingisinagriculture.Scientistsforeseethedaywhennewplantswillbedevelopedusingnitrogenfromtheairinsteadoffromfertilizerthereforefoodproductioncouldbeincreased.Inadditionentirelynewplantscouldbedevelopedtofeedtheworld’shungrypeople.

Noteveryoneisexcitedaboutgenesplicinghowever.Somepeoplefeelthatitcouldhaveterribleconsequences.Alaboratoryaccidentforexamplemightcauseanepidemicofanunknowndiseasethatcouldwipeouthumanity.Asaresultofthiscontroversythegovernmenthasmaderulestocontrolgeneticexperiments.Stillmanypeoplefeelthattheserulesarenotstrictenougheventhoughthescientificcommunitymayfeelthattheyaretoostrict.

Paragraph2

The“women’slib”movementtowardgreaterequalityforwomenhasproducedsomepermanentchangesinthevocabularyofEnglish.Thefirstchangeisthatnewwordshavebeenadded.