euthanasiaWord格式.docx

euthanasiaWord格式.docx

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Contents

▪1Definition

2Classificationofeuthanasia

▪2.1Voluntaryeuthanasia

▪2.2Non-voluntaryeuthanasia

▪2.3Involuntaryeuthanasia

▪2.4Passiveandactiveeuthanasia

3History

▪3.1Beginningsofthecontemporaryeuthanasiadebate

▪3.2EarlyeuthanasiamovementintheUnitedStates

▪3.31930sinBritain

▪3.4NaziEuthanasiaProgram（ActionT4）

▪4Euthanasiadebate

▪5Legalstatus

▪6Physiciansentiment

▪7Seealso

▪8References

▪9Externallinks

▪10Furtherreading

Definition

Likeothertermsborrowedfromhistory,"

euthanasia"

hashaddifferentmeaningsdependingonusage.Thefirstapparentusageoftheterm"

belongstothehistorianSuetoniuswhodescribedhowtheEmperorAugustus,"

dyingquicklyandwithoutsufferinginthearmsofhiswife,Livia,experiencedthe'

euthanasia'

hehadwishedfor."

[5]Theword"

wasfirstusedinamedicalcontextbyFrancisBaconinthe17thcentury,torefertoaneasy,painless,happydeath,duringwhichitwasa"

physician'

sresponsibilitytoalleviatethe'

physicalsufferings'

ofthebody."

Baconreferredtoan"

outwardeuthanasia"

—theterm"

outward"

heusedtodistinguishfromaspiritualconcept—theeuthanasia"

whichregardsthepreparationofthesoul."

[6]

Incurrentusage,oneapproachtodefiningeuthanasiahasbeentomirrorSuetonius,regardingitasthe"

painlessinducementofaquickdeath"

.[7]However,itisarguedthatthisapproachfailstoproperlydefineeuthanasia,asitleavesopenanumberofpossibleactionswhichwouldmeettherequirementsofthedefinition,butwouldnotbeseenaseuthanasia.Inparticular,theseincludesituationswhereapersonkillsanother,painlessly,butfornoreasonbeyondthatofpersonalgain;

oraccidentaldeathswhicharequickandpainless,butnotintentional.[8][9]

Thusanotherapproachistoincorporatethenotionofsufferingintothedefinition.[8]ThedefinitionofferedbytheOxfordEnglishDictionaryincorporatessufferingasanecessarycondition,with"

thepainlesskillingofapatientsufferingfromanincurableandpainfuldiseaseorinanirreversiblecoma"

[10]andthisapproachcanbeseenasapartofotherworks,suchasMarvinKholandPaulKurtz'

s"

amodeoractofinducingorpermittingdeathpainlesslyasarelieffromsuffering"

.[11]However,focusingonthisapproachtodefiningeuthanasiamayalsoleadtocounterexamples:

suchdefinitionsmayencompasskillingapersonsufferingfromanincurablediseaseforpersonalgain（suchastoclaimaninheritance）,andcommentatorssuchasTomBeauchamp&

ArnoldDavidsonhavearguedthatdoingsuchwouldconstitute"

murdersimpliciter"

ratherthaneuthanasia.[8]

Thethirdelementincorporatedintomanydefinitionsisthatofintentionality–thedeathmustbeintended,ratherthanbeingaccidental,andtheintentoftheactionmustbea"

mercifuldeath"

.[8]MichaelWreenarguedthat"

theprincipalthingthatdistinguisheseuthanasiafromintentionalkillingsimpliciteristheagent'

smotive:

itmustbeagoodmotiveinsofarasthegoodofthepersonkilledisconcerned"

[12]aviewmirroredbyHeatherDraper,whoalsospoketotheimportanceofmotive,arguingthat"

themotiveformsacrucialpartofargumentsforeuthanasia,becauseitmustbeinthebestinterestsofthepersononthereceivingend."

[9]DefinitionssuchasthatofferedbytheHouseofLordsSelectCommitteeonMedicalEthicstakethispath,whereeuthanasiaisdefinedas"

adeliberateinterventionundertakenwiththeexpressintentionofendingalife,torelieveintractablesuffering."

[1]Beauchamp&

DavidsonalsohighlightBaruchBrody'

anactofeuthanasiaisoneinwhichoneperson...（A）killsanotherperson（B）forthebenefitofthesecondperson,whoactuallydoesbenefitfrombeingkilled"

.[13]

Draperarguedthatanydefinitionofeuthanasiamustincorporatefourelements:

anagentandasubject;

anintention;

acausalproximity,suchthattheactionsoftheagentleadtotheoutcome;

andanoutcome.Basedonthis,sheofferedadefinitionincorporatingthoseelements,statingthateuthanasia"

mustbedefinedasdeaththatresultsfromtheintentionofonepersontokillanotherperson,usingthemostgentleandpainlessmeanspossible,thatismotivatedsolelybythebestinterestsofthepersonwhodies."

[14]PriortoDraper,Beauchamp&

Davidsonhadalsoofferedadefinitionwhichincludestheseelements,althoughtheyofferedasomewhatlongeraccount,andonethatspecificallydiscountsfetusesinordertodistinguishbetweenabortionsandeuthanasia:

[15]

"

Insummary,wehaveargued...thatthedeathofahumanbeing,A,isaninstanceofeuthanasiaifandonlyif

（1）A'

sdeathisintendedbyatleastoneotherhumanbeing,B,whereBiseitherthecauseofdeathoracausallyrelevantfeatureoftheeventresultingindeath（whetherbyactionorbyomission）;

（2）thereiseithersufficientcurrentevidenceforBtobelievethatAisacutelysufferingorirreversiblycomatose,orthereissufficientcurrentevidencerelatedtoA'

spresentconditionsuchthatoneormoreknowncausallawssupportsB'

sbeliefthatAwillbeinaconditionofacutesufferingorirreversiblecomatoseness;

（3）（a）B'

sprimaryreasonforintendingA'

sdeathiscessationofA'

s（actualorpredictedfuture）sufferingorirreversiblecomatoseness,whereBdoesnotintendA'

sdeathforadifferentprimaryreason,thoughtheremaybeotherrelevantreasons,and（b）thereissufficientcurrentevidenceforeitherAorBthatcausalmeanstoA'

sdeathwillnotproduceanymoresufferingthanwouldbeproducedforAifBwerenottointervene;

（4）thecausalmeanstotheeventofA'

sdeatharechosenbyAorBtobeaspainlessaspossible,unlesseitherAorBhasanoverridingreasonforamorepainfulcausalmeans,wherethereasonforchoosingthelattercausalmeansdoesnotconflictwiththeevidencein3b;

（5）Aisanonfetalorganism."

[16]

Wreen,inpartrespondingtoBeauchamp&

Davidson,offeredasixpartdefinition:

PersonAcommittedanactofeuthanasiaifandonlyif

（1）AkilledBorletherdie;

（2）AintendedtokillB;

（3）theintentionspecifiedin

（2）wasatleastpartialcauseoftheactionspecifiedin

（1）;

（4）thecausaljourneyfromtheintentionspecifiedin

（2）totheactionspecifiedin

（1）ismoreorlessinaccordancewithA'

splanofaction;

（5）A'

skillingofBisavoluntaryaction;

（6）themotivefortheactionspecifiedin

（1）,themotivestandingbehindtheintentionspecifiedin

（2）,isthegoodofthepersonkilled."

[17]

Wreenalsoconsideredaseventhrequirement:

"

（7）Thegoodspecifiedin（6）is,oratleastincludes,theavoidanceofevil"

althoughasWreennotedinthepaper,hewasnotconvincedthattherestrictionwasrequired.[18]

Indiscussinghisdefinition,Wreennotedthedifficultyofjustifyingeuthanasiawhenfacedwiththenotionofthesubject'

righttolife"

.Inresponse,Wreenarguedthateuthanasiahastobevoluntary,andthat"

involuntaryeuthanasiais,assuch,agreatwrong"

.[18]Othercommentatorsincorporateconsentmoredirectlyintotheirdefinitions.Forexample,inadiscussionofeuthanasiapresentedin2003bytheEuropeanAssociationofPalliativeCare（EPAC）EthicsTaskForce,theauthorsoffered:

Medicalizedkillingofapersonwithouttheperson'

sconsent,whethernonvoluntary（wherethepersoninunabletoconsent）orinvoluntary（againsttheperson'

swill）isnoteuthanasia:

itismurder.Hence,euthanasiacanbevoluntaryonly."

[19]AlthoughtheEPACEthicsTaskForcearguedthatbothnon-voluntaryandinvoluntaryeuthanasiacouldnotbeincludedinthedefinitionofeuthanasia,thereisdiscussionintheliteratureaboutexcludingonebutnottheother.[18]

Classificationofeuthanasia

Euthanasiamaybeclassifiedaccordingtowhetherapersongivesinformedconsentintothreetypes:

voluntary,non-voluntaryandinvoluntary.[20][21]

Thereisadebatewithinthemedicalandbioethicsliteratureaboutwhetherornotthenon-voluntary（andbyextension,involuntary）killingofpatientscanberegardedaseuthanasia,irrespectiveofintentorthepatient'

scircumstances.InthedefinitionsofferedbyBeauchamp&

Davidsonand,later,byWreen,consentonthepartofthepatientwasnotconsideredtobeoneoftheircriteria,althoughitmayhavebeenrequiredtojustifyeuthanasia.[8][22]However,othersseeconsentasessential.

Voluntaryeuthanasia

Mainarticle:

Voluntaryeuthanasia

Seealso:

Righttodie

Euthanasiaconductedwiththeconsentofthepatientistermedvoluntaryeuthanasia.ActivevoluntaryeuthanasiaislegalinBelgium,LuxembourgandtheNetherlands.PassivevoluntaryeuthanasiaislegalthroughouttheU.S.perCruzanv.Director,MissouriDepartmentofHealth.Whenthepatientbringsabouthisorherowndeathwiththeassistanceofaphysician,thetermassistedsu